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What makes a planet habitable?

  • Review Article
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The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review Aims and scope

Abstract

This work reviews factors which are important for the evolution of habitable Earth-like planets such as the effects of the host star dependent radiation and particle fluxes on the evolution of atmospheres and initial water inventories. We discuss the geodynamical and geophysical environments which are necessary for planets where plate tectonics remain active over geological time scales and for planets which evolve to one-plate planets. The discoveries of methane–ethane surface lakes on Saturn’s large moon Titan, subsurface water oceans or reservoirs inside the moons of Solar System gas giants such as Europa, Ganymede, Titan and Enceladus and more than 335 exoplanets, indicate that the classical definition of the habitable zone concept neglects more exotic habitats and may fail to be adequate for stars which are different from our Sun. A classification of four habitat types is proposed. Class I habitats represent bodies on which stellar and geophysical conditions allow Earth-analog planets to evolve so that complex multi-cellular life forms may originate. Class II habitats includes bodies on which life may evolve but due to stellar and geophysical conditions that are different from the class I habitats, the planets rather evolve toward Venus- or Mars-type worlds where complex life-forms may not develop. Class III habitats are planetary bodies where subsurface water oceans exist which interact directly with a silicate-rich core, while class IV habitats have liquid water layers between two ice layers, or liquids above ice. Furthermore, we discuss from the present viewpoint how life may have originated on early Earth, the possibilities that life may evolve on such Earth-like bodies and how future space missions may discover manifestations of extraterrestrial life.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria

    H. Lammer, M. L. Khodachenko & G. Stangl

  2. Institut für Angewandte und Physikalische Chemie, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany

    J. H. Bredehöft

  3. Laboratoire d’Etudes Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Meudon, Meudon, France

    A. Coustenis

  4. Harvard-Smithonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA

    L. Kaltenegger

  5. UMR, Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique, Nantes, France

    O. Grasset

  6. Laboratoire de Microbiologie des Environnements Extrêmes, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Brest, France

    D. Prieur

  7. Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systèmes Atmopshériques, CNRS & Universités Paris 12 et Paris 7, Créteil, France

    F. Raulin

  8. Astrobiology Group Leiden Institute of Chemistry, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands

    P. Ehrenfreund

  9. Swedish Institute for Space Physics, Kiruna, Sweden

    M. Yamauchi

  10. Swedish Institute for Space Physics, Uppsala, Sweden

    J.-E. Wahlund

  11. ASTRON, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands

    J.-M. Grießmeier

  12. CEPSAR, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK

    C. S. Cockell

  13. Polar Geophysical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Murmansk, Russian Federation

    Yu. N. Kulikov

  14. Zentrum für Astronomie und Astrophysik, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    J. L. Grenfell

  15. Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Institut für Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany

    J. L. Grenfell & H. Rauer

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Lammer, H., Bredehöft, J.H., Coustenis, A. et al. What makes a planet habitable?. Astron Astrophys Rev 17, 181–249 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-009-0019-z

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