Research PaperPredictors of Loneliness in U.S. Adults Over Age Sixty-Five
Section snippets
Physical, psychological, and social correlates of loneliness
Studies using older adult samples consistently report negative physical, psychological, and social correlates of loneliness. Physical correlates have included advancing age (Holmen et al., 1992), poor perceived health (Berg et al., 1981, Holmen et al., 1992), physical symptomatology (Berg et al., 1981; Cacioppo et al., 2002), cardiovascular effects including hypertension (Andersson, 1985, Cacioppo et al., 2002, Lynch and Covey, 1979, Tomaka et al., 2006), malnutrition (Walker and Beauchene, 1991
Predicting loneliness
Prior studies regarding predictors of loneliness report results similar to the aforementioned correlates of loneliness. Ten prior cross-sectional studies have reported analyses of social, psychological, and physical variables for explanatory value in relation toloneliness. Social variables reported as predictors have included non-married status (Hector-Taylor & Adams, 1996; Lauder, 2004; Victor, Scambler, Bond, & Bowling, 2005), diminished social contact and time alone (Cohen-Mansfield and
Purpose of the study
It is important that loneliness be studied within specific cultures since culture can profoundly affect a person's mental health (Basic Behavioral Science Task Force of the National Advisory Mental Health Council, 1996). Predictors of loneliness could differ based on healthcare opportunities and social programs offered within the country of residence. Further, negative health outcomes associated with loneliness may not be consistent cross-culturally. Tomaka and colleagues (2006) compared their
Sample
Data for this analysis was drawn from the ongoing Health and Retirement Study (HRS). The HRS is a biennial longitudinal survey that began in 1992 and focuses on the physical, mental, social, and financial characteristics of the aged in the U.S. It is a random, national sample of over 26,000 adults age 50 and over. The HRS effort is supported by the National Institute on Aging (NIA U01AG009740) and is administered through the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research.
The RAND data
Results
Table 1 shows sociodemographic sample characteristics. The study sample included 8932 participants ranging in age from 65 to 100 years. The mean age for the sample was 74.2 years (SD 7.02) with a mode of 65 years, indicating a positive skew for age. From the overall sample, which was 59% female and 49% male, the majority (70%) lived with others and not alone. Fifty-seven percent of respondents were married and 30% were widowed.
Table 2 shows the health-related sample characteristics. The
Discussion
The results of this study offer additional support to the notion that sociodemographic and health-related variables are explanatory of loneliness and show the magnitude of the problem of loneliness for older adults living in the U.S. with nearly one in five (19.3%) reporting that they experience loneliness. Additionally, these findings provide specific health-related explanatory variables of loneliness that could provide target areas for nursing practice and for nurse researchers to design and
Limitations
There are several limitations to the current study. Secondary data analysis using large sample sizes can give significant results that may not be present in smaller samples (Leslie & Beyea, 1999). Further, it is recognized that the cross-sectional design limits implications for causality. The self-report nature of the variables is a limitation as is the single-item measure of loneliness. A more comprehensive measure of loneliness may have better sensitivity and specificity for evaluation of the
Implications for psychiatric nursing
The problem of loneliness has been considered part of the nursing knowledge base since the writings of Hildegard Peplau in 1955. As the nursing knowledge base regarding the relationship of loneliness to physical and emotional health grows, it is becoming apparent that loneliness should be a nursing priority. Donaldson and Watson (1996) suggested that nurses set a research agenda to study how loneliness relates to the health of older adults. However, since that time, the majority of loneliness
Conclusions
Loneliness is a prevalent, predictable problem for older adults in the U.S. and it should be viewed as a public health priority. Since loneliness is associated with stigma, it should be considered that it may be underreported and that the prevalence may actually be higher. Given that loneliness is linked to depression, low quality of life, and poor health practices, it is important that at-risk older adults be identified. Knowing who is at risk for loneliness could lead to the development of
Acknowledgment
The author thanks Dr. Susan McCrone, Dr. Elisabeth Shelton, and Dr. Irene Tessaro for their thoughtful review of this manuscript.
References (48)
- et al.
Loneliness, disease and death: Alternative approaches
Psychosomatics
(1979) - et al.
Primary care professionals' perceptions of depression in older people: A qualitative study
Social Science & Medicine
(2006) - et al.
Predictors and subjective causes of loneliness in an aged population
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics
(2005) - et al.
The relationship of loneliness, social isolation, and physical health to dietary adequacy of independently living elderly
Journal of the American Dietetic Association
(1991) - et al.
Loneliness, health and depression in older males
Aging & Mental Health
(2003) Intervention against loneliness in a group of elderly women
Social Science Medicine
(1985)- et al.
Associations between early experiences with parents and well-being in old age
Journal of Gerontology
(1993) The social determinants of health: A contribution to the analysis of gender differences in health and illness
Scandinavian Journal of Public Health
(1999)Research Report: Dyadic loneliness in marriage
Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama, & Sociometry
(1993)Basic behavioral science research for mental heath: Sociocultural and environmental processes
American Psychologist
(1996)
Loneliness in the Swedish aged
Journal of Gerontology
Loneliness and health: Potential mechanisms
Psychosomatic Medicine
Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross-Sectional and longitudinal analyses
Psychology and Aging
Loneliness in older persons: A theoretical model and empirical findings
International Psychogeriatrics
Loneliness in elderly people: an important area for nursing research
Journal of Advanced Nursing
Changes in adult loneliness
Research on Aging
Loneliness as a predictor of quality of life among older caregivers
Journal of Advanced Nursing
Someone to talk to? The role of loneliness as a factor in the frequency of GP consultations
British Journal of General Practice
Loneliness and psychological distress in older adults
International Journal of Aging and Human Development
State versus trait loneliness in elderly New Zealanders
Psychology Reports
Loneliness among elderly people living in Stockholm: A population study
Journal of Advanced Nursing
A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys
Research on Aging
Predictors of loneliness in elderly Korean immigrant women living in the United States of America
Journal of Advanced Nursing
Being alone versus being with people: Disengagement in the daily experience of older adults
Journal of Gerontology
Cited by (226)
Living alone and all-cause mortality in community-dwelling older adults: The moderating role of perceived neighborhood cohesion
2023, Social Science and MedicineFunctionality and loneliness in older people: Model of mediation by positive affect
2024, Anales de PsicologiaAn exploratory psychometric network analysis of loneliness scales in a sample of older adults
2024, Current PsychologyLoneliness in older adults with diabetes mellitus: a scoping review
2024, Psychology, Health and Medicine