Abstract
This study explores the range and diversity of the typological features of Mandarin, the largest dialect group within the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan family. Feeding the typological data of 42 Sinitic varieties into the phylogenetic program NeighborNet, we obtained network diagrams suggesting a north-south divide in the Mandarin dialect group, where dialects within the Amdo Sprachbund cluster at one end and those in the Far Southern area cluster at the other end, highlighting the impact of language contact on the typological profiles of various Mandarin dialects.
Acknowledgements
Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the 9th International Conference in Evolutionary Linguistics (CIEL-9) held at the Yunnan Minzu University in August 2017 and the 12th Conference of the Association for Linguistic Typology (ALT 2017) held at the Australian National University in December 2017. We’d like to thank the audience for their insightful feedback. We’re also grateful for the constructive criticism and detailed comments by the editors and anonymous reviewers.
Abbreviations
- 1/2/3
1st/2nd/3rd person
- abl
ablative
- acc
accusative
- clf
classifier
- comit
comitative
- comp
comparative
- compl
completive
- cop
copular
- dat
dative
- dis
disposal
- ego
egophoric
- erg
ergative
- exp
experiential
- impf
imperfective
- indf
indefinite
- indir
indirect
- inst
instrumental
- loc
locative
- obj
objective
- pfv
perfective
- pl
plural
- pn
proper noun
- poss
possessive
- prog
progressive
- prt
particle
- quot
quotative
- sg
singular
- sur
surpass
- vbz
verbalizer
Author contributions
Pui Yiu Szeto: Study conception and design, data collection, data analysis and interpretation, drafting of manuscript, critical revision; Umberto Ansaldo: Data analysis and interpretation, critical revision; Stephen Matthews: Data analysis and interpretation, critical revision
Appendix. Dialect features
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ma1 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma2 | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma3 | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma4 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma5 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma6 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma7 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma8 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma9 | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma10 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma11 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | + | + | − |
Ma12 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma13 | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma14 | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | + |
Ma15 | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + |
Ma16 | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma17 | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma18 | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma19 | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | − |
Ma20 | + | + | − | + | + | − | + | − | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | − |
Ma21 | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − |
Ma22 | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | − |
Ma23 | + | + | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | + | + | − |
Ma24 | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
Ma25 | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | − |
Ma26 | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − |
J1 | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
J2 | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | − |
W1 | + | − | − | + | + | − | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | + | − | + | − |
W2 | + | − | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | + | − |
Hu1 | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | − |
X1 | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | − | + | + | − |
X2 | + | − | − | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | − |
G1 | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | − | + | − | + | − | − |
G2 | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | − | + | − | + | + | − |
Mi1 | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | − | + | − | + | − |
Mi2 | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | + | − | + | − | − | − | + | − | − | − |
Ha1 | + | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | − | + | − | − | − |
Ha2 | + | + | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | + | − | − | + | + | − | − | − | + | − | + | − |
Y1 | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | + | + | − | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − |
Y2 | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | + | + | − | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − |
P1 | + | − | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | + | + | − | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − | − |
References
Aboh, Enoch O. & Michel DeGraff. 2016. A null theory of creole formation based on Universal Grammar. In Ian Roberts (ed.), The Oxford handbook of universal grammar, 401–458. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199573776.013.18Search in Google Scholar
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2003. Mechanisms of change in areal diffusion: New morphology and language contact. Journal of Linguistics39(1). 1–29.10.1017/S0022226702001937Search in Google Scholar
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2004. Evidentiality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto. 1999. Surpass comparatives in Sinitic: Typology and grammaticalization. Stockholm: Stockholm University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto. 2009. Contact languages: Ecology and evolution in Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511642203Search in Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto. 2010. Surpass comparatives in Sinitic and beyond. Linguistics 48. 919–950.10.1515/ling.2010.029Search in Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto. 2017a. Comparatives. In Rint Sybesma (ed.), Encyclopedia of Chinese languages and linguistics, vol. 1, 641–644. Leiden/Boston: Brill.Search in Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto. 2017b. Pidgins and creoles. In Rint Sybesma (ed.), Encyclopedia of Chinese languages and linguistics, vol. 3, 422–425. Leiden/Boston: Brill.Search in Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto & Lisa Lim. 2004. Phonetic absence as syntactic prominence: Grammaticalization in isolating tonal languages. In Olga Fischer, Muriel Norde & Harry Peridon (eds.), Up and down the cline - The nature of grammaticalization, 345–362. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.59.18ansSearch in Google Scholar
Arcodia, Giorgio Francesco. 2013. Grammaticalisation with coevolution of form and meaning in East Asia? Evidence from Sinitic. Language Sciences 40. 148–167.10.1016/j.langsci.2013.05.002Search in Google Scholar
Bakker, Peter, Aymeric Daval-Markussen, Mikael Parkvall & Ingo Plag. 2011. Creoles are typologically distinct from non-creoles. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1). 5–42.10.1075/bct.57.02bakSearch in Google Scholar
Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen. 1994. Phylogenetic networks. Verhandl Naturwiss Vereins Hamburg 34. 51–71.Search in Google Scholar
Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen & Andreas Dress. 1993. A relational approach to split decomposition. In Otto Opitz, Berthold Lausen & Rüdiger Klar (eds.), Information and classification: Concepts, methods and applications, 121–131. Berlin: Springer.Search in Google Scholar
Bennett, Paul. 1979. A critique of the Altaicization hypothesis. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 6. 91–104.10.1163/19606028-90000241Search in Google Scholar
Bisang, Walter. 1996. Areal typology and grammaticalization: Processes of grammaticalization based on nouns and verbs in East and mainland South East Asian languages. Studies in Language 20(3). 519–597.10.1075/sl.20.3.03bisSearch in Google Scholar
Bisang, Walter. 2004. Grammaticalization without coevolution of form and meaning: The case of tense-aspect-modality in East and mainland Southeast Asia. In Walter Bisang, Nikolaus P. Himmelmann & Björn Wiemer (eds.), What makes grammaticalization? - A look from its fringes and its components, 109–138. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110197440Search in Google Scholar
Bisang, Walter. 2008. Precategoriality and syntax-based parts of speech - the case of Late Archaic Chinese. Studies in Language 32. 568–589.10.1075/sl.32.3.05bisSearch in Google Scholar
Bowern, Claire. 2018. Computational phylogenetics. Annual Review of Linguistics 4. 281–296.10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011516-034142Search in Google Scholar
Branner, David Prager. 2000. Problems in comparative Chinese dialectology: The classification of Miin and Hakka. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110802849Search in Google Scholar
Bryant, David & Vincent Moulton. 2004. Neighbor-Net: An agglomerative method for the construction of phylogenetic networks. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21(2). 255–265.10.1093/molbev/msh018Search in Google Scholar
Campbell, Lyle. 2013. Historical linguistics: An introduction, 3rd edn. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Campbell, Lyle & William J. Poser. 2008. Language classification: History and method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511486906Search in Google Scholar
Cao, Guangshun & Hsiao-Jung Yu. 2000. The influence of translated Later Han Buddhist Sutras on the development of the Chinese disposal construction. Cahiers de Linquistique Asie Orientale 29(2). 151–178.10.3406/clao.2000.1569Search in Google Scholar
Cao, Zhiyun (ed.). 2008. 汉语方言地图集 Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtújí [Linguistic atlas of Chinese dialects]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chao, Yuen Ren. 1968. A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chappell, Hilary. 2001. Language contact and areal diffusion in Sinitic languages. In Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (eds.), Areal diffusion and genetic inheritance: Problems in comparative linguistics, 328–357. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chappell, Hilary. 2006. From Eurocentrism to Sinocentrism: The case of disposal constructions in Sinitic languages. In Felix Ameka, Alan Dench & Nicholas Evans (eds.), Catching language: The standing challenge of grammar writing, 441–486. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Search in Google Scholar
Chappell, Hilary (ed.). 2015a. Diversity in Sinitic languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198723790.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Chappell, Hilary. 2015b. Linguistic areas in China for differential object marking, passive, and comparative constructions. In Hilary Chappell (ed.), Diversity in Sinitic languages, 13–52. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198723790.003.0002Search in Google Scholar
Chappell, Hilary, Li Ming & Alain Peyraube. 2007. Chinese linguistics and typology: The state of the art. Linguistic Typology 11. 187–211.10.1515/LINGTY.2007.014Search in Google Scholar
Chappell, Hilary & Alain Peyraube. 2006. The diachronic syntax of causative structures in Early Modern Southern Min. In Dah-An Ho (ed.), Festschrift for Ting Pang-Hsin, 973–1011. Taipei: Academia Sinica.Search in Google Scholar
Chin, Andy C. 2011. Grammaticalization of the Cantonese double object verb [pei35] 畀 in typological and areal perspectives. Language and Linguistics 12(3). 529–563.Search in Google Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. 2008. The areal typology of Chinese: Between North and Southeast Asia. In Redouane Djamouri, Barbara Meisterernst & Rint Sybesma (eds.), Chinese linguistics in Leipzig, 1–21. Paris: École des hautes études en sciences sociales.Search in Google Scholar
Dede, Keith. 1999. An ablative postposition in the Xining dialect. Language Variation and Change 11(1). 1–17.10.1017/S0954394599111013Search in Google Scholar
Dede, Keith. 2003. The Chinese language in Qinghai. Studia Orientalia 95. 321–346.Search in Google Scholar
Dede, Keith. 2007a. The deep end of the feature pool: Syntactic hybridization in Chinese dialects. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 35(1). 58–80.Search in Google Scholar
Dede, Keith. 2007b. The origin of the anti-ergative [xa] in Huangshui Chinese. Language and Linguistics 8(4). 863–881.Search in Google Scholar
DeLancey, Scott. 1992. The historical status of the conjunct/disjunct pattern in Tibeto-Burman. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 25. 39–62.10.1080/03740463.1992.10412277Search in Google Scholar
DeLancey, Scott. 1997. Mirativity: The grammatical marking of unexpected information. Linguistic Typology 1(1). 33–52.10.1515/lity.1997.1.1.33Search in Google Scholar
DeLancey, Scott. 2013. The origins of Sinitic. In Zhuo Jing-Schmidt (ed.), Increased empiricism: Recent advances in Chinese Linguistics, 73–100. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/scld.2.04delSearch in Google Scholar
Dryer, Matthew S. 1992. The Greenbergian word order correlations. Language 68. 81–138.10.1353/lan.1992.0028Search in Google Scholar
Dryer, Matthew S. 2013a. Relationship between the order of object and verb and the order of relative clause and noun. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), The world atlas of language structures online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info/chapter/96.Search in Google Scholar
Dryer, Matthew S. (with Orin D. Gensler). 2013b. Order of object, oblique, and verb. In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), The world atlas of language structures online, Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info/chapter/84.Search in Google Scholar
Dryer, Matthew S. & Martin Haspelmath (eds.). 2013. The world atlas of language structures online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info.Search in Google Scholar
Dunn, Michael, Simon J. Greenhill, Stephen C. Levinson & Russell D. Gray. 2011. Evolved structure of language shows lineage-specific trends in word-order universals. Nature 473. 79–82.10.1038/nature09923Search in Google Scholar
Dunn, Michael, Stephen C. Levinson, Eva Lindström, Ger Reesink & Angela Terrill. 2008. Structural phylogeny in historical linguistics: Methodological explorations applied in Island Melanesia. Language 84(4). 710–759.10.1353/lan.0.0069Search in Google Scholar
Dunn, Michael, Angela Terrill, Ger Reesink, Robert A. Foley & Stephen C. Levinson. 2005. Structural phylogenetics and the reconstruction of ancient language history. Science 309. 2072–2075.10.1126/science.1114615Search in Google Scholar
Dwyer, Arienne M. 1992. Altaic elements in the Línxìa dialect: Contact-induced change on the Yellow River plateau. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 20(1). 160–179.Search in Google Scholar
Dwyer, Arienne M. 1995. From the Northwest China sprachbund: Xúnhuà Chinese dialect data. Yuen Ren Society Treasury of Chinese Dialect Data 1. 143–182.Search in Google Scholar
Enfield, Nick J. 2003. Linguistic epidemiology: Semantics and grammar of language contact in Mainland Southeast Asia. London: Routledge Curzon.Search in Google Scholar
Felsenstein, Joseph. 1981. Evolutionary trees from DNA sequences: A maximum likelihood approach. Journal of Molecular Evolution 17(6). 368–376.10.1007/BF01734359Search in Google Scholar
Floyd, Simeon, Elisabeth Norcliffe & Lila San Roque (eds.). 2018. Egophoricity. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.118Search in Google Scholar
Fon Sing, Guillaume. 2017. Creoles are not typologically distinct from non-Creoles. Language Ecology 1(1). 44–74.10.1075/le.1.1.04fonSearch in Google Scholar
Fried, Robert Wayne. 2010. A grammar of Bao’an Tu, a Mongolic language of Northwest China. The University of Buffalo, State University of New York PhD dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer & Paul J. Sidwell. 1999. Telling general linguists about Altaic. Journal of Linguistics 35(1). 65–98.10.1017/S0022226798007312Search in Google Scholar
Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.). 1966. Universals of language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Greenhill, Simon J., Chieh-Hsi Wu, Xia Hua, Michael Dunn, Stephen C. Levinson & Russell D. Gray. 2017. Evolutionary dynamics of language systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) 114(42). E8822–E8829.10.1073/pnas.1700388114Search in Google Scholar
Guillaume, Antoine. 2016. Associated motion in South America: Typological and areal perspectives. Linguistic Typology 20(1). 81–177.10.1515/lingty-2016-0003Search in Google Scholar
Handel, Zev. 2015. The classification of Chinese: Sinitic (the Chinese language family). In William S.-Y. Wang & Chaofen Sun (eds.), The Oxford handbook of Chinese linguistics, 34–44. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hashimoto, Mantaro. 1976. Language diffusion on the Asian continent: Problems of typological diversity in Sino-Tibetan. Computational Analysis of Asian and African Languages 3. 49–63.Search in Google Scholar
Hashimoto, Mantaro. 1985. 语言地理类型学 Yǔyán dìlǐ lèixíngxué [Areal typology of language]. Beijing: Peking University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hashimoto, Mantaro. 1987. 汉语被动式的历史 Hànyǔ bèidòngshì de lìshǐ [The history of the Chinese passive construction]. 中国语文 Zhōngguó Yǔwén 1. 36–49.Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva. 2002. World lexicon of grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511613463Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva. 2005. Language contact and grammatical change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511614132Search in Google Scholar
Holm, John & Peter L Patrick (eds.). 2007. Comparative creole syntax: Parallel outlines of 18 creole grammars. London: Battlebridge.Search in Google Scholar
Holman, Eric W., Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Viveka Velupillai, André Müller & Dik Bakker. 2008. Explorations in automated language classification. Folia Linguistica 42. 331–354.10.1515/FLIN.2008.331Search in Google Scholar
Hou, Jingyi. 1999. 现代晋语的研究 Xiàndài Jìnyǔ de yánjiū [A study of modern Jin]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.Search in Google Scholar
Huelsenbeck, John P., Fredrik Ronquist, Rasmus Nielsen & Jonathan P. Bollback. 2001. Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary biology. Science 294(5550). 2310–2314.10.1126/science.1065889Search in Google Scholar
Huson, Daniel H. & David Bryant. 2006. Application of phylogenetic networks in evolutionary studies. Molecular Biology and Evolution 23(2). 254–267.10.1093/molbev/msj030Search in Google Scholar
Huson, Daniel H., Regula Rupp & Celine Scornavacca. 2010. Phylogenetic networks: Concepts, algorithms and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511974076Search in Google Scholar
Janhunen, Juha. 1996. Mongolic languages as idioms of intercultural communication in Northern Manchuria. In Stephen A. Wurm, Peter Mühlhäusler & Darrell T. Tryon (eds.), Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas, 827–835. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110819724.3.827Search in Google Scholar
Janhunen, Juha. 2003. Para-Mongolic. In Juha Janhunen (ed.), The Mongolic languages, 391–402. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Janhunen, Juha. 2007. Typological interaction in the Qinghai linguistic complex. Studia Orientalia 101. 85–102.Search in Google Scholar
Janhunen, Juha. 2012. On the hierarchy of structural convergence in the Amdo Sprachbund. In Pirkko Suihkonen, Bernard Comrie & P. Solovyev (eds.), Argument structure and grammatical relations: A cross-linguistic typology, 177–189. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/slcs.126.08janSearch in Google Scholar
Janhunen, Juha. 2015. Describing and transcribing the phonologies of the Amdo Sprachbund. In Gerald Roche, Keith Dede, Fernanda Pirie & Benedict Copps (eds.), Centering the local. A Festschrift for Dr Charles Kevin Stuart on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday, 122–137. Asian Highlands Perspectives 37.Search in Google Scholar
Kaye, Alan S. 2002. The Turkish nominal phrase in spoken discourse (review). Language 78(3). 602.10.1353/lan.2002.0162Search in Google Scholar
Kurpaska, Maria. 2010. Chinese language(s): A look through the prism of The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.10.1515/9783110219159Search in Google Scholar
Kusters, Wouter. 2003. Linguistic complexity: The influence of social change on verbal inflection. Utrecht: LOT.Search in Google Scholar
Lamarre, Christine. 2015. The morphologization of verb suffixes in Northern Chinese. In Guangshun Cao, Redouane Djamouri & Alain Peyraube (eds.), Languages in contact in North China: Historical and synchronic studies, 277–308. Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales.Search in Google Scholar
Lamarre, Christine, Alice Vittrant, Anetta Kopecka, Sylvie Voisin, Noellie Bon, Benjamin Fagard, Colette Grinevald, Claire Moyse-Faurie, Annie Risler, Jinke Song, Adeline Tan & Clément Voirin. Forthcoming. Deictic directionals revisited in the light of advances in typology.10.1075/hcp.72.04lamSearch in Google Scholar
LaPolla, Randy J. 1992. Anti-ergative marking in Tibeto-Burman. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 15(1). 1–9.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1976. Subject and topic: A new typology of language. In Charles N. Li (ed.), Subject and topic, 457–489. London: Academic Press.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Rong (ed.). 2002. 現代漢語方言大詞典 Xiàndài Hànyǔ fāngyán dàcídiǎn [The great dictionary of Modern Chinese dialects]. Nanjing: Jiangsu Jiaoyu Chubanshe.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Xiaofan & Mengbing Xiang. 2009. 汉语方言学基础教程 Hànyǔ fāngyánxué jīchǔ jiāochéng [An introductory course on Chinese dialectology]. Beijing: Peking University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Matisoff, James A. 1991. Areal and universal dimensions of grammaticalization in Lahu. In Elizabeth Closs Traugott & Bernd Heine (eds.), Approaches to grammaticalization, vol. II, 383–453. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.19.2.19matSearch in Google Scholar
Matthews, Stephen. 2007. Cantonese grammar in areal perspective. In Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald & R.M.W. Dixon (eds.), Grammars in contact: A cross-linguistic typology, 220–236. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Matthews, Stephen & Virginia Yip. 2011. Cantonese: A comprehensive grammar, 2nd edn. New York: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
McMahon, April & Robert McMahon. 2005. Language classification by numbers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
McWhorter, John H. 2005. Defining creole. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
McWhorter, John H. 2011. Linguistic simplicity and complexity: Why do languages undress? Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.10.1515/9781934078402Search in Google Scholar
Mei, Tsulin & Jerry Norman. 1976. The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some lexical evidence. Monumenta Serica 32. 274–301.10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121Search in Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 2001. The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511612862Search in Google Scholar
Ng, Kathleen Teresa. 2015. The myth of a universal Sinitic grammar: The case of basic locative constructions. The University of Hong Kong MPhil Dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Norman, Jerry. 1988. Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Norman, Jerry. 1991. The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective. In William S.-Y. Wang (ed.), Languages and dialects of China, 325–360. Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series 3. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Packard, Jerome L. 2000. The morphology of Chinese: A linguistic and cognitive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511486821Search in Google Scholar
Peyraube, Alain. 2015. Grammatical change in Sinitic languages and its relation to typology. In Hilary Chappell (ed.), Diversity in Sinitic languages, 53–78. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198723790.003.0003Search in Google Scholar
Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1991. Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin. Vancouver: UBC Press.Search in Google Scholar
Saitou, Naruya & Masatoshi Nei. 1987. The neighbor-joining method: A new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 4(4). 406–425.Search in Google Scholar
Sandman, Erika. 2016. A grammar of Wutun. University of Helsinki PhD Dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Sandman, Erika & Camille Simon. 2016. Tibetan as a “model language” in Amdo Sprachbund: Evidence from Salar and Wutun. Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics 3(1). 85–122.10.1515/jsall-2016-0003Search in Google Scholar
Schroeder, Christoph. 1999. The Turkish nominal phrase in spoken discourse. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Search in Google Scholar
Shen, Zhongwei. 2011. The origin of Mandarin. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 39(1). 1–31.Search in Google Scholar
Shibatani, Masayoshi & Theodora Bynon. 1999. Approaches to language typology: A conspectus. In Masayoshi Shibatani & Theodora Bynon (eds.), Approaches to language typology, 1–26. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Simmons, Richard VanNess. 1999. On Chinese dialect classification - A case study examining the relationship of the Harngjou and Jennjiang dialects. In Richard VanNess Simmons (ed.), Issues in Chinese dialect description and classification, 204–234. New Brunswick: Journal of Chinese Linguistics.10.1075/cilt.188Search in Google Scholar
Simons, Gary F. & Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2018. Ethnologue: Languages of the world, 21st edn. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.Search in Google Scholar
Slater, Keith W. 2003. A grammar of Mangghuer: A Mongolic language of China’s Qinghai-Gansu sprachbund. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Sun, Hongkai, Zengyi Hu & Hang Huang (eds.). 2007. 中国的语言 Zhōngguó de yǔyán [The languages of China]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.Search in Google Scholar
Sun, Jackson T. S. 1993. Evidentials in Amdo Tibetan. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica 63(4). 945–1001.Search in Google Scholar
Sung, Kuo-ming & Lha Byams Rgyal. 2005. Colloquial Amdo Tibetan: A complete course for adult English speakers. Beijing: National Press for Tibetan Studies.Search in Google Scholar
Swadesh, Morris. 1955. Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistic dating. International Journal of American Linguistics 21. 121–137.10.1086/464321Search in Google Scholar
Sybesma, Rint. 2008. Zhuang: A Tai language with some Sinitic characteristics. Postverbal ‘can’ in Zhuang, Cantonese, Vietnamese and Lao. In Pieter Muysken (ed.). From linguistic areas to areal linguistics. 221–274. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/slcs.90.06sybSearch in Google Scholar
Sybesma, Rint, Enoch O. Aboh, Umberto Ansaldo & Lisa L.S. Cheng. In preparation. Analyticity. A comparison of Sinitic and Kwa. Unpublished draft.Search in Google Scholar
Szeto, Lok Yee. 2001. Between dialect and language: Aspects of intelligibility and identity in Sinitic and Romance. The University of Hong Kong MPhil Dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Tadmor, Uri, Martin Haspelmath & Bradley Taylor. 2010. Borrowability and the notion of basic vocabulary. Diachronica 27(2). 226–246.10.1075/bct.46.04tadSearch in Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2004. Linguistic and social typology: The Austronesian migrations and phoneme inventories. Linguistic Typology 8. 305–320.10.1515/lity.2004.8.3.305Search in Google Scholar
van Driem, George. 2011. Rice and the Austroasiatic and Hmong-Mien homelands. In Nick J Enfield (ed.), Dynamics of human diversity: The case of Mainland Southeast Asia, 361–390. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Feng & William S.-Y. Wang. 2004. Basic words and language evolution. Language and Linguistics 5(3). 643–662.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Jian. 2015. Bare classifier phrases in Sinitic languages: A typological perspective. In Hilary Chappell (ed.), Diversity in Sinitic languages, 110–133. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198723790.003.0005Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Li. 1982. 汉语音韵学 Hànyǔ yīnyùnxué [Chinese phonology], Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, William S.-Y. 1994. Glottochronology, lexicostatistics, and other numerical methods. In Ron Asher (ed.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics, vol. 3, 1445–1450. Oxford/New York: Pergamon Press.Search in Google Scholar
Wichmann, Søren, Eric W. Holman & Cecil H. Brown. 2010a. Sound symbolism in basic vocabulary. Entropy 12(4). 844–858.10.3390/e12040844Search in Google Scholar
Wichmann, Søren, Eric W. Holman & Cecil H. Brown (eds.). 2018. The ASJP database (version 18). Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://asjp.clld.org/.Search in Google Scholar
Wichmann, Søren, André Müller & Viveka Velupillai. 2010b. Homelands of the world’s language families: A quantitative approach. Diachronica 27(2). 247–276.10.1075/bct.46.05wicSearch in Google Scholar
Wu, Manxiang. 2015. A grammar of Sanjiang Kam. The University of Hong Kong PhD Dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Wu, Yicheng. 2017. Numeral classifiers in Sinitic languages: Semantic content, contextuality, and semi-lexicality. Linguistics 55(2). 333–369.10.1515/ling-2016-0043Search in Google Scholar
Xu, Dan. 2012. Reduplication in languages: A case study of languages of China. In Dan Xu (ed.), Plurality and classifiers across languages in China, 43–64. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110293982.43Search in Google Scholar
Xu, Dan. 2014. 甘青一帶的賓格標記及其類型學上的意義 Gānqīng yīdài de bīngé biājì jí qí lèixíngxué shàng de yìyì [Accusative case marking in the Gansu-Qinghai region and its significance on typological studies]. In Che Wah Ho & Shengli Feng (eds.), 承繼與拓新:漢語語言文字學研究Chéngjì yǔ tuòxīn: Hànyǔ yǔyán wénzìxué yánjiū [Inheritance and innovations: Studies in Chinese linguistics and philology], 494–514. Hong Kong: The Commercial Press.Search in Google Scholar
Xu, Dan. 2017. The Tangwang language: An interdisciplinary case study in Northwest China. Cham: Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-59229-9Search in Google Scholar
Xu, Liejiong & Alain Peyraube. 1997. On the double object construction and the oblique construction in Cantonese. Studies in Language 21(1). 105–127.10.1075/sl.21.1.05lieSearch in Google Scholar
Xu, Tongjiang. 1991. 历史语言学 Lìshǐ yǔyánxué [Historical linguistics]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.Search in Google Scholar
Yuan, Jiahua. 1960. 汉语方言概要 Hànyǔ fāngyán gàiyào [An outline of Chinese dialects]. Beijing: Wenzi Gaige Chubanshe.Search in Google Scholar
Yue-Hashimoto, Anne. 1991. The Yue dialect. In William S.-Y. Wang (ed.), Languages and dialects of China, 292–322. Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series 3. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Zhenxing (ed.). 2012. 中国语言地图集 Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtújí [Language atlas of China], 2nd edn. Beijing: The Commercial Press.Search in Google Scholar
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston