Wikipedia

Kabaw Valley

The Kabaw Valley also known as Kubo valley[3] is a highland valley in Myanmar's western Sagaing Division, close to the border with India's Manipur. The valley is located between Yomadong range of mountains, which constitute the present-day India–Myanmar border, and the Chindwin River (also called the Ningthi River).[4]

Kabaw Valley
ကဘော်ချိုင့်ဝှမ်း
Natural region
Kabaw Valley is located in Myanmar
Kabaw Valley
Kabaw Valley
Coordinates: 24°06′19″N 94°20′31″E / 24.10527°N 94.34194°E / 24.10527; 94.34194
CountryMyanmar
Area
[1]
 • Total22,210 km2 (8,580 sq mi)
Elevation
[2]
140 m (460 ft)

According to the Manipur chronicles, king Kiyamba of Manipur conquered the Kabaw Valley jointly with the king of the Pong kingdom in the 15 century, and the valley was divided between the two kings. It was under Manipuri control for a considerable period, though it was frequently occupied by the Burmese kings from Bayinnaung onwards. Finally it was ceded to Burma by the king Marjit Singh in return for Burmese help in his accession to the throne.

During the First Anglo-Burmese War, the Manipuri prince Gambhir Singh evicted the Burmese from the Kabaw valley, but the Burmese contested the Manipuri claim to it. After receiving input from the British envoy to Burma, Major Burney,[5] the British were persuaded to hand the valley back to Burma in 1834.[6][7] The British compensated Manipur for the loss of territory by annual subsidy.[8][9][10][11][12]

Geography edit

 
Major river valleys of Myanmar

The Kale–Kabaw Valley is to the west of the Chindwin River valley, separated by a range called Ango Ching (or Ang-go Ching). It is bounded on the west by the Yomadong range of mountains, the bounding range of Manipur and Chin Hills.[13] The northern section, called the Kabaw valley, is watered by the Yu River (or the Kabaw River), which flows south until Khampat and then breaks through the Ango Ching range to join Chindwin. The southern section, called the Kale valley, is watered by the Myittha River flowing north, which breaks through Ango Ching near Kale.

The 1913 Burma Gazetteer describes the valley as being "unhealthy but exceedingly fertile", which is "imperfectly cultivated".[13] It also mentions that the paddy grown in the valley could not be easily taken to the market (in the Chindwin valley or beyond) due to the difficulty of transport through the Ango Ching range.[14]

The valley used to have three principalities based at Thaungdut[a] (known as "Samjok" in Manipur),[b] Khampat,[c] and Kale.[d][20] Thaungdut/Samsok and Khampat were jointly invaded by the king Kiyamba of Manipur and the king of Pong in 1467 CE, and divided among themselves.[21] Kale appears to have remained independent, at least for a time.

Thus the name "Kabaw Valley" applies to the valley north of Khampat, while the southern valley retains the name "Kale". The two are jointly referred to as "Kale-Kabaw Valley".

After a 1758 invasion by emperor Alaungpaya of Burma,[22][23] a market and village at Tamu appear to have developed, overshadowing Khampat.[24] By the end of the 19th century, when the British took over Burma, the "Tamu Township" was considered synonymous with the Kabaw Valley.[25]

To the northwest of Tamu, is the village of Moreh on the Manipur side of the border. A Manipuri stockade was established here by Gambhir Singh in 1829, and later a penal colony for women convicts.[26][27] In the 20th century, it has developed into a border trading town twinned with Tamu.

History edit

 
Burmese Toungoo kingdom in 1572
 
The location of Tamu in the Kabaw Valley as well as the Tamu Road from Manipur, also known as the Aimol Pass (Survey of India, 1924)

The Chronicles of Manipur, called Cheitharol Kumbaba state that, in 1470 CE, King Kiyamba of Manipur and King Choupha Khekkhompa of Pong (identified with the state of Mogaung) conquered together the principalities of Thaungdut and Khampat:

[King Kiyamba] was victorious over the Kyangs of Kapo. Meetingu Kyampa and Choupha Khekkhompa, the king of Pong, made an alliance and fought (against the Kyangs). ... They attacked together Kyang Khampat of Kapo. They defeated Kyang. Captured in battle Mung of Takhen, Khamset, Khamkhai and Hokham.[16]

"Kyangs" refers to "Chins", the Burmese name for the tribes inhabiting the Northern Arakan Yomas, who are called "Kukis" on the Indian side of the border.[28][29][30]

After their victory, the two kings divided the conquered land among themselves, with Khampat and some part of Thaungdut (possibly the northern part of the Kabaw Valley) going to Manipur, and Thaungdut in the Chindwin River valley going to Pong.[31] Thaungdut, a Shan principality, appears to have remained for a considerable period,[32] possibly as a subsidiary of Pong. Nothing more is heard of Khampat after this conquest. The headquarters of the principality appears to have shifted to Tamu, close to the route to Manipur called the "Aimol Pass".[33]

Around 1555, the King Bayinnaung of the Toungoo dynasty unified all of present day Burma (Myanmar), conquering or receiving tribute from all the Shan kingdoms in the north. His prestige was so great that the Manipur kingdom is said to have become a tributary.[34][35][36][37] Some time after Bayinnaung, Manipur declared independence, but the relations with Burma continued as late as 1704, when Manipur offered a princess in marriage to the Toungoo emperor.[38] Border raids in both the directions occurred during the intervening period. In 1647 and 1692, Manipur is said to have raided Thaungdut and the empire sent levies to defend it.[39] The Manipuris also acquired horsemanship from the Burmese during this period, and refined their skills by playing Polo as a regular pastime.[40][41] During the reign of Garib Niwaz (r. 1714–1754), when the Toungoo empire became considerably weak, the Manipuris raided all the way to Sagaing, opposite the capital Ava, burnt villages and monasteries and carried off captives.[42]

Retribution to Manipur was delivered after the Toungoo dynasty was replaced by the Konbaung dynasty in Burma, with Alaungpaya coming to the throne in 1752.[43] Alaungpaya personally invaded Manipur in 1758, causing considerable damage.[44][45] He left after thirteen days, leaving forces permanently garrisoned at Tamu and Thaungdut.[46] A more devastating invasion was made by his successor Hsinbyushin in 1764 capturing numerous captives.[47][48][49] The ruler Bhagyachandra fled to Assam, where he remained for four years.[e] Further raids continued till 1782 and Bhagyachandra's efforts to regain his throne were repeatedly repulsed.[51] After 1782, Manipur appears to have been left alone in Bhagyachandra's hands, but raids on the Kabaw Valley are mentioned in the chronicles.[52] In 1804, chiefs of fourteen outlying villages, including Tamu and Thaungdut, are said to have paid tribute to Bhagyachandra after a gap of 41 years.[53]

After Bhagyachandra's death, his sons quarreled for the throne, inviting Burmese interference. Marjit Singh, who wanted to usurp the throne from his brother Chourjit Singh, went to the Burmese King Bodawpaya, taking gifts and seeking his help.[54] In 1813, Bodawpaya moved forward bases into the Kabaw Valley, ousted Chourjit Singh from Manipur and installed Marjit Singh as the king of Manipur.[55] In return Marjit Singh ceded Kabaw Valley to Burma.[54]

Marjit Singh's insubordination to Bodawpaya's successor Bagyidaw in 1819 led to a final Burmese conquest of Manipur, and changed the Burmese policy from a demand for tribute to indirect administration through a puppet ruler. A permanent garrison was stationed in Manipur to back the installed administration.[55] The Burmese occupation lasted seven years and ended only with the First Anglo-Burmese War.

War and settlement edit

Further information: First Anglo-Burmese War and Treaty of Yandabo

During the Burmese occupation, the four sons of Bhagyachandra ensconced themselves in the neighbouring kingdom of Cachar, whose ruler Gonvinda Chandra was their relative. From there, they sought British help to oust the Burmese from Manipur. After the Burmese occupied Assam and started threatening the states bordering British Bengal, the British declared war on Burma in 1824.[56] Gambhir Singh, one of the four sons, was provided funding to raise a 'Manipur Levy' from Manipuri expatriates, with the objective of driving the Burmese out of Manipur. It eventually consisted of 2000 men and was commanded by a British officer, Major F. J. Grant with Captain R. B. Pemberton as his assistant.[57][58][f]

The British proceeded on two fronts: a land invasion of Assam, which commenced immediately,[59] and a naval invasion on the Burmese mainland starting in May 1824.[60] Gambhir Singh's force entered Manipur in June 1825 and found that the Burmese forces had already left the state.[61] They had been apparently recalled to fight against British advances along the Irrawaddy Valley.[62]

In January 1826, Gambhir Singh marched to Kabaw Valley, where again only local men were present under the command of the chief of Thaungdut (Samjok). They were ensconced in two stockades, one at Tamu and another on the right bank of the Chindwin River. Both were easily defeated.[63]

By February 1826, the Burmese agreed to all the British terms and signed the Treaty of Yandabo. By the treaty, they relinquished control over all the states bordering British India, including Manipur. It was later recognized that the clause concerning Manipur was rather limited. It stipulated that "should Gumbheer Sing desire to return to that country, he shall be recognised by the King of Ava as Raja thereof". He was not explicitly recognised as an independent ruler. Nor was any territory or boundary mentioned.[64][65] However, it became immediately clear that the Kabaw Valley was contested. After the conclusion of the treaty, some Burmese troops entered the Kabaw Valley but returned without entering into hostilities. Gambhir Singh submitted the matter to the decision of the British Government.[66]

Henry Burney, who was sent as the British envoy to Ava,[g] was charged with discussing the matter with the Burmese. He ascertained that the Burmese had no wish to claim suzerainty over Manipur. However, they did not accept Manipur's claim to the Kabaw Valley, and wanted it returned.[65] Burney found that tensions were rather high over the issue.[68] King Bogyidaw was firm in his demand for the Kabaw Valley and was quite prepared to renew hostilities for its sake.[69] Several years of negotiations followed.[70] Burney found the Burmese empire compiling the historical chronicles of all the Burmese kingdoms, which were made available to him to study. Based on his own studies, in addition to the Burmese arguments, Burney became convinced of the Burmese claim to the Kabaw Valley.[71] In the eventual memorandum sent to the British Governor-General, he stated that the Kabaw Valley was in the possession of Burmese kings since 1370 and that, for 12 years prior to the outbreak of the war, it was in continuous Burmese possession. Further, he interpreted the Treaty of Yandabo to mean that Manipur was entitled to recover only those territories that it possessed before the war.[66][72]

Burney's report won the day. The Governor-General acceded to the demand to restore Kabaw Valley to Burma.[73] The transfer took place on 9 January 1834.[74] Grant and Pemberton were dispatched to define the boundary between Manipur and Burma along the Yomadong range, where it still lies. Manipur was compensated by the British government for the loss of its territory by an annual payment of Rs. 6,000.[75]

Communities edit

 
Survey map showing Imphal valley along with Kabaw valley (AMS, 1955, based on Survey of India maps prior to 1942)

At the north end of the valley, lies the Manipuri town of Humine, with the first Burmese town being Zedi.[76][77] The region is mixedly inhabited , Majority being Thadou people with other Kuki people/Zo people and the with some Meeteis, Nepalis, Kados, and Kanans.

Moreh, India is the border town in the Manipur, India side while Tamu is in Myanmar. Both are being referred to as the twin border towns of trade in the border region with both town being home to Thadou people .

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Thaungdut (or "Thaungdoot",[15] "Thaungthut"[13]) is actually in the Chindwin River valley (24°25′58″N 94°42′09″E / 24.4327°N 94.7024°E / 24.4327; 94.7024 (Thaungdut)). It appears to have controlled the northern portion of the Kabaw Valley from here.
  2. ^ Alternative spellings: "Samsok", "Somsok",[16] "Songsuk",[17] and "Sumjok".[15]
  3. ^ Alternative spellings: Khanpat,[18] Kampat and Kumbat.[19]
  4. ^ Alternative spellings: Kule.[19]
  5. ^ The Chronicle of Manipur does not mention the names of Alaungpaya and Hsinbyushin. It states that the king, Meitingu Marampa, "ascended to the heavens" even before the latter's invasion and that his successor Bhagyachandra, having been defeated, fled to Assam.[50]
  6. ^ The initial offer was made to Chorjit Singh and Gambhir Singh jointly, but the former was dismissed in due course as the British were not convinced of his loyalty.
  7. ^ Major Burney was officially designated as the "British Resident" at Ava, but the term did not imply any vassalage of Burma to British India. The Burmese king was addessed as "His Majesty".[67]

References edit

  1. ^ "Manipur Demands Compensation for Kabaw Valley Lost to Myanmar during 'Yandabo Treaty' - INSIDE NE". 20 March 2020.
  2. ^ Kabaw Valley, Myanmar (Burma)
  3. ^ Tassin, Jean-Baptiste, Map of the territory of Muneepoor, with part of the Kubo valley and Burmese frontier, by captain R. Boileau Pemberton, Calcutta: J. B. Tassin, lith., OCLC 494924053
  4. ^ Mackenzie, Alexander (1884). History Of The Relations Of The Government With The Hill Tribes Of The North-east Frontier Of Bengal. p. 175.: "The Kubo Valley lies between the Heerok or Yoma range of mountains, which bounds the eastern side of the Manipur Valley, and Ningthee or Ky end wen [Chindwin] River."
  5. ^ Cocks, Samuel William (1919). A short history of Burma. London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd. pp. 59–117.
  6. ^ Aitchison, C. U. (1931). Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. Vol. 12 edn: 5. Calcutta. p. 202.
  7. ^ A collection of treaties, engagements, and sanads relating to India and neighbouring countries. Government of India, Calcutta. 1929.
  8. ^ Brown, R. (1874). Statistical account of the native state of manipur. The Superintendent of Government Press,Calcutta. p. 74.
  9. ^ Singh, K. M. (Karam Manimohan) (1991). History of the Christian missions in Manipur and neighbouring states. New Delhi, India : Mittal Publications. p. 419. ISBN 978-81-7099-285-1.
  10. ^ Banerjee, A. C. (1946) [1943], The Eastern Frontier of British India, 1784–1826 (Second ed.), Calcutta: A. Mukherjee, pp. 492–493 – via archive.org
  11. ^ Bhat, Sudhakar (1975). The Challenge of the Northeast. N.A. pp. 51–54.: "The valley was made part of Burma by the British in 1834. As compensation for the loss of the territory, the British Government undertook to pay to the Ruler of Manipur a sum equivalent to Rs. 6,270 per annum. After the transfer of power, the Government of Burma continued to pay the amount to the Government of India which, in turn, passed on the amount to Manipur State."
  12. ^ Brown, R (1874). Statistical Account of Manipur. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Press. pp. 73–74.: "All the provisions of the above treaty, with the exception of the last, remain in force. The only other arrangement carried out between the British and Manipur Governments in the form of a treaty relates tc the handing over of the Kubo Valley to the Burmese, and the payment of the monthly allowance in lieu. This arrangement bears date 25th January 1834, and stipulates that, should the Kubo Valley from any circumstances again revert to Manipur, the allowance shall cease."
  13. ^ a b c Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), p. 4.
  14. ^ Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), p. 66.
  15. ^ a b Johnstone, Manipur and the Naga Hills (1896), p. 87.
  16. ^ a b Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 1 (2005), p. 41.
  17. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 1 (2005), p. 171.
  18. ^ Tarapot, Bleeding Manipur (2003), p. 99.
  19. ^ a b Simha, Hijam Irabot Singh and Political Movements in Manipur (1989), p. 278.
  20. ^ Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), p. 11.
  21. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 1 (2005), p. 41–42.
  22. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), pp. 238–239.
  23. ^ Tarapot, Bleeding Manipur (2003), pp. 115–116.
  24. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 2 (2009), p. 3. "In the month of Wakching (December/January) [of 1764] Yipungsi Haricharan the Senapati left to attack Aawa. They fought at the Tumu market but they were not victorious and retreated.".
  25. ^ Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), pp. 11, 66.
  26. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 2 (2009), p. 100.
  27. ^ Dun, Gazetteer of Manipur (1886), p. 166.
  28. ^ Kuki Research Forum on objective historical position of the Kukis in Manipur, Ukhrul Times, 25 May 2022.
  29. ^ Charles Morgan-Webb (India. Census Commissioner), ed. (1912), Burma: Report, Office of the Supdt., Government Print., Burma, p. 195
  30. ^ Go, Khup Za (2008), Zo Chronicles: A Documentary Study of History and Culture of the Kuki-Chin-Lushai Tribe, Mittal Publications, p. 182, ISBN 9788183242103, [Quiting G. A. Grierson]: Chin is a Burmese word to denote the various hill tribes living in the country between Burma and the Province of Assam and Bengal. [It] is written and dialectically [pronounced] Khyang.
  31. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 1 (2005), p. 41: "The whole land of Khari was allotted to the Meeteis. The area which was beyond Somsok [Thaungdut] belonged to the Pongs and the area of (Samsok) which was behind (the Pong’s area) belonged to the Meeteis.".
  32. ^ Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), p. 12: "In 1875 the Thaungthut Sawbwa complained that some Kongzai [Khongjai] Chins had attacked one of his Naga villages and killed forty-five persons"..
  33. ^ Tarapot, Bleeding Manipur (2003, pp. 115–116)
  34. ^ Aung, A History of Burma (1967), pp. 116–117.
  35. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), p. 165.
  36. ^ Aung-Thwin & Aung-Thwin, A History of Myanmar (2013), p. 133.
  37. ^ Lieberman, Strange Parallels (2003), pp. 151–152.
  38. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), p. 208.
  39. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), pp. 194, 208.
  40. ^ Aung, A History of Burma (1967), p. 152.
  41. ^ Aung, A History of Burma (1967), p. 208.
  42. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), p. 208: "In 1738 when the king garrisoned these two places and Mingin in the Upper Chindwin district against them, they simply cantered past, camped at Thalunbyu west of Sagaing, burnt every house and monastery up to the walls of Ava, and stormed the stockade built to protect the Kaunghmudaw pagoda, slaughtering the garrison like cattle in a pen and killing the commandant, a minister of the Hluttaw Council; the old door-leaves of the pagoda's eastern gateway show a gash made by the sword of Gharib Newaz when he was forcing an entrance.".
  43. ^ Thant, The Making of Modern Burma (2001), pp. 14–15: "Manipur, which had given so much trouble to the last Toungoo kings, had been the first object of Burmese aggression under the new Konbaung rulers.".
  44. ^ Cocks, A Short History of Burma (1919), pp. 69–70: "In 1754 Manipuris had again invaded Burma, and Alaungpaya now announced his intention of settling the succession in Manipur. His army met with no opposition, for all the inhabitants sought refuge in the hills. The fortifications of the capital were destroyed; and after receiving the submission of one or two minor chiefs, the king returned to Ava.".
  45. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), pp. 238–239: "Alaungpaya now proceeded up the Chindwin, devastating the villages of the Kathe (Manipur) Shans on the west bank; he crossed the hills by the Khumbat route, and entered the Manipur valley. The Manipuris say he was unspeakably cruel; but he was only doing unto them as they had done unto his people.".
  46. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), p. 239.
  47. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), p. 248: "Hsinbyushin 1763-76 himself raided Manipur in December 1764, carrying away its people into captivity, for he wished to increase the population of the new Capital, Ava, into which he moved in April 1765.".
  48. ^ Cocks, A Short History of Burma (1919), p. 75: "The Manipuris had planned an invasion of Burma and obtained a promise of help from the East India Company... The king determined to punish the Manipuris himself, leaving the conduct of the Siamese campaign to his generals. In 1764 he sent an army to Kani on the Chindwin, and travelling by river joined his troops there. He invaded Manipur and captured the Raja and many other prisoners, who were brought down to Ava, which the king reached in April 1765.".
  49. ^ Thant, The Making of Modern Burma (2001), p. 15: "Thousands of Manipuris were forcibly deported to the Burmese capital and the combination of war, flight and deportation left Manipur virtually empty for years. Many of these captives were boatmen, smiths, weavers and artisans who became hereditary crown servants at Ava, and for generations they, their descendants and later Manipuri deportees formed an underclass in the valley, acting as domestic servants, menial labourers and agricultural workers for the Burmese royal family and nobility.".
  50. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 2 (2009), p. 3.
  51. ^ Harvey, History of Burma (1925), pp. 261–262.
  52. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 2 (2009), pp. 21, 57.
  53. ^ Parratt, The Court Chronicle, Vol. 2 (2009), p. 68.
  54. ^ a b Cocks, A Short History of Burma (1919), p. 98.
  55. ^ a b Thant, The Making of Modern Burma (2001), p. 15.
  56. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), p. 319.
  57. ^ Hall, Henry Burney (1974), p. 186.
  58. ^ Tarapot, Bleeding Manipur (2003), pp. 121–122.
  59. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), p. 330.
  60. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), p. 359.
  61. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), pp. 346–347.
  62. ^ Cocks, A Short History of Burma (1919), p. 108.
  63. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), pp. 347–348.
  64. ^ Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), p. 11–12.
  65. ^ a b Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), p. 491.
  66. ^ a b Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), pp. 492–493.
  67. ^ Pemberton, Report on the Eastern Frontier (1835), p. 119.
  68. ^ Hall, Henry Burney (1974), pp. 212–213: "Tension over the Kabaw Valley Was building up to such a pitch, when Burney arrived at Ava, that an open rupture with Manipur was feared. The planting of boundary flags along the right bank of the Chindwin by Grant and Pemberton was such a challenge to the Burmese that only the opposition of the wungyis had prevented the king from ordering troops to remove them.".
  69. ^ Hall, Henry Burney (1974), p. 220: "Both Lane and Lanciago.. had expressed their fears on the subject, and although [Burney] had always ridiculed the idea that the king would be ready to go to war over such a matter as the Kabaw Valley, they assured him that he would have done so at the beginning of the year, had not his own arrival in the country been expected.".
  70. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), pp. 492–493: "For eight years the matter formed a subject of controversy between the Governments of India and Burma.".
  71. ^ Hall, Henry Burney (1974), p. 242: "Henry Burney had been studying the various writings available at Ava on the history of the Valley. He had gradually arrived at the conclusion that the Burmese claim was a good one, and that the Government of India would be well-advised to reverse its judgement awarding the valley to Gambhir Singh of Manipur.".
  72. ^ Hall, Henry Burney (1974), p. 245: "On the second point Burney explained that the Burmese chronicle known as the Mahayazawindawgyi Oater (to be called by the British The Glass Palace Chronicle), which covered Burmese history up to 1821, showed that the valley had been in Burmese possession since 1370, though during the wars with the Shans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries it had been often overrun. There were also stone inscriptions supporting the Burmese claim.... On the fourth point he said the Burmese had had undisputed possession of the valley for twelve years prior to the Anglo-Burmese war, and although during the war it had been conquered by the Manipuris, the stipulation in the treaty of Yandabo that the Raja of Manipur should recover his territories applied only to those which he had held before the war.".
  73. ^ Hall, Henry Burney (1974), p. 246.
  74. ^ Banerjee, The Eastern Frontier of British India (1946), p. 493.
  75. ^ Upper Chindwin District Gazetteer (1913), p. 12.
  76. ^ "Burma 1:250,000 topographic map, Series U542, Paungbyin, NG 46-16" U.S. Army Map Service, November 1955
  77. ^ Tarapot lists the towns of Kahambat, Woktong, Tammu, Mungsa and Samjok at Tarapot, Phanjoubam (2003) Bleeding Manipur Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, India, page 222, ISBN 81-241-0902-8, but aside from Tammu being Tamu, identification of them is difficult.

Bibliography edit


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