Rafida (Arabic: رافضة, romanized: Rāfiḍa, lit. 'rejectors') is a derogatory term applied to Shia Muslims who 'reject' the legitimacy of the first three caliphs Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), Umar (r. 634–644), and Uthman (r. 644–656), in favor of Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–661), the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Rooted in early Islamic history, the term Rafida is used in Sunni polemics against Shi'ism. Several Shia scholars view the term in a favourable light to signify Shias' rejection of whom they regard as oppressive Sunni rulers.
Definition edit
The term Rafida or Rawafid (lit. 'rejectors', sg. Rafidi) broadly refers to those Shia Muslims who 'reject' the caliphates of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), Umar (r. 634–644), and Uthman (r. 644–656).[1] One after another, these caliphs succeeded the Islamic prophet Muhammad after he died in 632 CE.[2][3]
The term "Rawafid" (lit. 'those who reject', sg. Rafidi) was also used as a derogatory term to describe Shia Muslims. In particular, the term Rafida applied to Twelvers, who constitute the majority of the Shia community.[4][5] Twelvers believe that, shortly before he died in 632 CE, Muhammad publicly designated his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm. According to the Twelvers, early caliphs thus usurped Ali's right to succeed Muhammad. They also believe that Ali was succeeded by eleven of his descendants.[4][6] Rooted in early Islamic history, the term Rafida is still used in Sunni polemics, but has also been reinterpreted favorably by some Shia scholars to signify 'rejection' of all tyranny and the Shia struggle against whom they consider as oppressive Sunni rulers.[2] Less commonly, the term Rafida has been applied to other Shia sects, such as the ghulat (lit. 'exaggerators' or 'extremists'),[4] who ascribed divinity to Shia imams.[citation needed]
Context edit
By eleventh century, the Shia status as "rejectors of the Truth" was canonized by Hanbali scholars, who did not grant Islamic rights to Shia Muslims: They were not to be married with, meat slaughtered by them was not halal (permissible), and they could not lead prayers.[7][4] With the fall of Abbasids in 1258, such attacks on Shi'ism intensified.[7] They are labeled today as infidels or heretics by various Salafi and Wahhabi scholars,[8][9] considered a bigger threat to Islam than Christianity and Judaism,[7][9] and sometimes, there are frequent calls for their extermination.[10][8][11] On these grounds, some Sunni Jihadist groups have justified acts of violence against the Shia community.[12][13] A popular reference for these groups is the prominent Hanbali theologian Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), a staunch anti-Shia who also accused the Shia of conspiring with the disbelievers to destroy Islam from within.[14] In Saudi Arabia, where Wahhabism was officially promoted by the state,[15][16] schoolbooks referred to Shias as the Rafida until 1993. They are still openly denounced in Saudi schoolbooks and state-sponsored media.[17][18]
Several Imamite Shia scholars consider the term to be an honorific title and identify themselves as Rafida.[19] In the contemporary era, many Shi'ites in Iraq and Lebanon view the term as a source of pride and use it as a symbol of revolt.[2]
History edit
Origins edit
Origins of the term Rafida is uncertain. Perhaps the term is linked with the desertion of the Shia rebel Zayd ibn Ali (d. 740 CE) by some Kufan Shias, after the former refused to denounce the first two caliphs. They thus 'rejected' Zayd and became known as the Rafida. Zayd's rebellion was subsequently suppressed by the Umayyads and he was killed.[4][20][21] Rather than the rejection of Zayd, more likely the term Rafida historically signified the rejection of the first three caliphs by most Imamite Shias.[5]
Over time, the term Rafida became a popular pejorative for Imamite Shias, that is, the majority of the Shia community, known today as the Twelvers.[19] For Sunnis, the term signified the rejection of the first three caliphs,[19] whom Twelvers count among infidels for allegedly usurping Ali ibn Abi Talib's right to succeed Muhammad.[22][23] Alternatively, for Zaydi Shias, who follow Zayd's teachings, the term denoted the rejection of Zayd by early Imamites.[19]
Rafida in Sunni tradition edit
The term Rafida appears in some Sunni traditions. In one such tradition, Muhammad predicts the emergence of a group that would reject (yarfuduna) Islam. In another one, he orders Ali ibn Abi Talib to kill the Rafida for they are polytheists. Elsewhere, the Rafida, who are allegedly similar to Jews, are blamed for introducing into Islam the concept of anthropomorphism (tashbih), which is allegedly a hallmark of Judaism.[4]
Rafida in Twelver Shia tradition edit
Even though the term Rafida is intended as derogatory, there are several Twelver Shia traditions, attributed to Shia imams, that reinterpret this term favorably. In one such tradition, Rafida are identified as a small group among the people of Pharaoh who rejected his rule, undaunted by his threats of punishment. This tradition referenced the verses 7:120–126 and 20:70–75 of the Quran. Twelver narrations state that the term Rafida also reportedly appeared in the Tawrat.[19]
Rafida in Zaydi Shia tradition edit
According to Zaydi traditions, Rafida referred to those Kufans who deserted and refused to support Zayd, who had a policy not to condemn the first two Rashidun Caliphs,[24][25] saying he never heard his family call them bad names.[26][27] Zayd ibn Ali considered Ali the best leader after Muhammad, but refused to condemn the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar. As a result, the majority of the Kufans deserted Zayd ibn Ali, hence the term Rāfiḍa due to their rejection.[28]
Rafida became a popular pejorative term against Twelvers used by the Zaydi scholars, who criticised their rejection of Zayd ibn Ali.[29] According to Zaydi sources, the term was used by Zayd ibn Ali against some Kufans, because of their rejection of Zayd ibn Ali's claim to Imamate:
"Allah is Most Great! I swear by Allah, you all are the Rafidites mentioned by the Messenger of Allah in his statement: 'After me there will be a people who will reject the jihad with the good of the Ahl al-Bayt and they will say that there is no commanding the good or forbidding the evil! They will mimic in the religion and follow their whims …'"[30]
See also edit
Footnotes edit
- ^ "Rāfiḍah". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023.
Rāfiḍah, (Arabic: "Rejectors"), broadly, Shīʿite Muslims who reject (rafḍ) the caliphate of Muḥammad's two successors Abū Bakr and ʿUmar. Many Muslim scholars, however, have stated that the term Rāfiḍah cannot be applied to the Shīʿites in general but only to the extremists among them who believe in the divine right of ʿAlī to succeed Muḥammad and who condemn Abū Bakr and ʿUmar as unlawful rulers of the Muslim community.
- ^ a b c Esposito 2003, p. 262.
- ^ Madelung 2000, p. 112.
- ^ a b c d e f Kohlberg 2012.
- ^ a b Momen 1985, p. 73.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2014.
- ^ a b c Nasr 2007, §1.
- ^ a b Yamani 2008, pp. 151–152.
- ^ a b Steinberg 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Jones 2005, p. 21.
- ^ Steinberg 2014, p. 114.
- ^ Shorok 2017, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Steinberg 2014.
- ^ Steinberg 2014, p. 111.
- ^ Ibrahim 2006, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Jones 2005, p. 23.
- ^ Prokop 2003, p. 81.
- ^ Jones 2005, pp. 23–24.
- ^ a b c d e Kohlberg 1979, p. 677.
- ^ Daftary 2013, p. 146.
- ^ al-Abdul Jader 2010, p. 11.
- ^ Dakake 2007, p. 107.
- ^ Friedlaender 1907, p. 22.
- ^ Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi; Karim Douglas Crow (2005). Facing One Qiblah: Legal and Doctrinal Aspects of Sunni and Shi'ah Muslims. Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd. p. 186. ISBN 9789971775520.
- ^ Najam Haider (26 Sep 2011). The Origins of the Shī'a: Identity, Ritual, and Sacred Space in Eighth-Century Kūfa. Cambridge University Press. pp. 196–7. ISBN 9781139503310.
- ^ Najībābādī, Akbar (2000). History of Islam Volume 2. Darussalam Publishers. p. 229. ISBN 978-9960892863.
- ^ Suleiman, Yasir, ed. (21 Apr 2010). Living Islamic History: Studies in Honour of Professor Carole Hillenbrand (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780748642199.
- ^ حلمي, مصطفى. "Dr". alukah.net. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^ Kohlberg 1979, p. 677-679.
- ^ al-Hussein al-Houthi, Allāma Yahya. Al-Jawāb ar-Rāqi 'ala al-Masā'il al-Irāqi. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2017-08-02.
Sources edit
- al-Abdul Jader, A.S. (2010). "The Origin of Key Shi'ite Thought Patterns in Islamic History". In Suleiman, Y. (ed.). Living Islamic History: Studies in Honour of Professor Carole Hillenbrand. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748637386.
- Amir-Moezzi, M.A. (2014). "Ghadīr Khumm". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). ISBN 9789004269613.
- Daftary, F. (2013). A History of Shi'i Islam. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780857723338.
- Dakake, M.M. (2007). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791470336.
- Delong-Bas, N.J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195169911.
- Esposito, J.L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195125597.
- Friedlaender, I. (1907). "The Heterodoxies of the Shiites in the Presentation of Ibn Ḥazm". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 28: 1–80.
- Ibrahim, F. (2006). The Shi'is of Saudi Arabia. SAQI. ISBN 9780863569036.
- Jones, T. (2005). "The Iraq Effect in Saudi Arabia". Middle East Report. 237: 20–25.
- Kohlberg, E. (1979). "The Term 'Rāfida' in Imāmī Shī'ī Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 99 (4): 677–679. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 601453.
- Kohlberg, E. (2012). "al-Rāfiḍa". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). ISBN 9789004161214.
- Madelung, W. (2000). "Review of Islamic Legal Orthodoxy: Twelver Shiite Responses to the Sunni Legal System, by D.J. Stewart". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 120/1: 111–114.
- Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300035315.
- Nasr, V. (2007). Shia Revival. W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780393066401.
- Prokop, M. (2003). "Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education". International Affairs. 79/1: 77–89.
- Shorok, K. (2017). We are Saving Iraq: The Legitimising Discourse of The Popular Mobilisation in Iraq (PDF) (Thesis). University of Oslo.
- Steinberg, G. (2014). "Jihadi-Salafism and the Shi'is: Remarks About the Intellectual Roots of Anti-Shi'ism". In Meijer, R. (ed.). Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement. Oxford Academic.
- Yamani, M. (2008). "The two faces of Saudi Arabia". Survival. 50/1: 143–156.
External links edit
- rafida.org
- Haddad, F. (2013). "The Language of Anti-Shiism". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2013-08-11.
- Zelin, A.Y.; Smyth, P. (2014). "The Vocabulary of Sectarianism". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2014-03-16.