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Agha and Malley point out that even in Syria there has been a misrepresentation of the conflict, that the [[Assad regime]] relied on an alliance that included middle class Sunnis along with other religious minorities. Prior to the uprising, the Syrian regime enjoyed some financial and political support from Sunni [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf states]]. The "select rich urban bourgeoisie, the Sunni Damascene in particular", according to Tokyo University researcher Housam Darwisheh, "now has a direct interest in preserving stability and their relations with the regime as long as their businesses prosper."<ref>{{cite web|last=Darwisheh|first=Housam|url=https://ir.ide.go.jp/index.php?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=37785&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1&page_id=39&block_id=158|title=''From Authoritarianism to Upheaval: the Political Economy of the Syrian Uprising and Regime Persistence|year=2013|publisher=Institute of Developing Economics, Japan|access-date=31 March 2019}}</ref> In the view of the Arab sociologist [[Halim Barakat]], "the persistence of communal cleavages complicates rather than nullifies social class consciousness and struggles."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/eBooks/MidEast/BOOKS/The%20Arab%20World%20Barakat.pdf |last=Barakat|first=Halim|title=''The Arab World: Society, Culture and State''|publisher=Berkeley, University of California Press|year=1993|page=19}}</ref>
Al-Mahameed et al point out that the dominant state and weak private sector resulted in a number of political and economic drivers that fuelled the Arab Spring to varying degrees. This led to issues of poverty, lack of education and economic growth, where the region failed to achieve an acceptable reduction in the unemployment rates and improve the living standards of ordinary citizens. The Arab world had become more educated, younger and gender gaps had decreased. In contrast, the number of people living under the poverty line in the Arab region had increased, at a time when global poverty figures were declining<ref>https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/AAAJ-08-2019-4129/full/html</ref>.
==== Arab Summer (Second Arab Spring) ====
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