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→Cognitive factors: added some recent work with connectionist models which make some of these ideas explicit |
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Other cognitive approaches have looked at learners' speech production, particularly learners' [[speech planning]] and [[communication strategies]]. Speech planning can have an effect on learners' spoken output, and research in this area has focused on how planning affects three aspects of speech: complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Of these three, planning effects on fluency has had the most research attention.{{sfn|Ellis|2008|pp=488–492}} Communication strategies are conscious strategies that learners employ to get around any instances of communication breakdown they may experience. Their effect on second-language acquisition is unclear, with some researchers claiming they help it, and others claiming the opposite.{{sfn|Ellis|2008|p=511}}
An important idea in recent cognitive approaches is the way that learning itself changes over development. For example, connectionist models that explain L1 language phenomena in different languages (e.g., Japanese, English <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Franklin|date=2009-10-01|title=Learning to order words: A connectionist model of heavy NP shift and accessibility effects in Japanese and English|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X09000734|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|volume=61|issue=3|pages=374–397|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2009.07.006|issn=0749-596X}}</ref>) can also be used to develop L2 models by first training on the L1 (e.g., Korean) and then training on the L2 (e.g. English) <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janciauskas|first=Marius|last2=Chang|first2=Franklin|date=2018|title=Input and Age-Dependent Variation in Second Language Learning: A Connectionist Account|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cogs.12519|journal=Cognitive Science|language=en|volume=42|issue=S2|pages=519–554|doi=10.1111/cogs.12519|issn=1551-6709|pmc=PMC6001481|pmid=28744901}}</ref>. By using different learning rates for syntax and lexical learning that change over development, the model can explain sensitive period effects and differences in the effect of language exposure on different types of learners.
== Sociocultural factors ==
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