Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014): Difference between revisions

The '''Egyptian Crisis''' began with the [[Egyptian revolution of 2011]], when hundreds of thousands of [[Egypt]]ians took to the streets in an ideologically and socially diverse mass protest movement that ultimately forced longtime president [[Hosni Mubarak]] from office.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/26/world/middleeast/26egypt.html?pagewanted=all|agency=The New York Times|title=Violent Clashes Mark Protests Against Mubarak's Rule|date=25 January 2011|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/201121125158705862.html|agency=Al Jazeera|title=Hosni Mubarak resigns as president|date=11 February 2011|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> A protracted political crisis ensued, with the [[Supreme Council of the Armed Forces]] taking control of the country until a series of popular elections, which are thought to have been tampered with, brought the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] to [[Muslim Brotherhood in post-Mubarak electoral politics of Egypt|power]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/27/egypt-scaf-safe-exit-deal|agency=The Guardian|title=Egypt told to give military leaders 'safe exit' by western governments|date=27 March 2012|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> However, disputes between elected [[Islamism|Islamist]] president [[Mohamed Morsi]] and secularists continued until the [[June 2013 Egyptian protests|anti-government protests in June 2013]] that led to the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|overthrow]] of Morsi in 2013, in what has been variably described as a [[coup d'état]] or as an ending to the second revolution, or both.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/07/03/is-what-happened-in-egypt-a-coup-or-a-revolution-its-both/|agency=The Washington Post|title=Is what happened in Egypt a coup or a revolution? It's both.|date=3 July 2013|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], who announced the overthrow of Morsi, then became the leader of Egypt the following year, winning election to the presidency in a [[Egyptian presidential election, 2014|landslide victory]] described by EU observers as free but not necessarily fair.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102492/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-vote-free-but-not-necessarily-fair-EU-elect.aspx|agency=Ahram Online|title=Egypt's vote free but not necessarily fair: EU official|date=May 29, May 2014|accessdate=February 4, February 2016}}</ref> Nonetheless, Sisi's election was widely recognized, and the political situation has largely stabilized since he officially took power; however, some protests have continued despite a government crackdown. The crisis has also spawned an ongoing [[Sinai insurgency|insurgency]] led by [[Ansar Bait al-Maqdis]] in the [[Sinai Peninsula]], which became increasingly intertwined with the [[military intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|regional conflict]] against the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] later in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://time.com/3612225/william-henderson-sinai-egypt/|title=Sinai Insurgency Shows Signs of Spreading after ISIS-Linked Militants Say They Killed U.S. Engineer|date=1 December 2014|accessdate=9 January 2015|agency=TIME}}</ref>

{{main|History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt}}Before Mubarak took command of the Egyptian government, the [[List of Presidents of Egypt|third President of Egypt]], [[Anwar Sadat]], had been in office since 1970. President Sadat had significantly changed the course of Egypt, reinstating a [[multi-party system]] and allowing for an [[Infitah|increase in foreign investment]], among other measures. Also, during Sadat's presidency Egypt both fought in the [[Yom Kippur War]] against Israel and, five years later, successfully negotiated the [[Camp David Accords]]; this allowed the country to regain sovereignty over the [[Sinai Peninsula]] that Israel had been in control of [[Six-Day War|since 1967]]. Because of these negotiations and their outcome, both he and [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Menachem Begin]] were awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1978, which made Sadat the first [[Muslim]] Nobel laureate. On 6 October 1981, President Sadat [[Assassination of Anwar Sadat|was assassinated]] in Cairo during the annual celebrations of [[Operation Badr (1973)|Operation Badr]] by members of [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]], an Islamist terrorist group. About a week after Sadat's assassination, then Vice-President [[Hosni Mubarak]] took office as Presidentpresident, an action that was approved through a referendum of the [[House of Representatives (Egypt)|People's Assembly]].

During [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|his presidency]], Mubarak pursued policies similar to those of his predecessor, including a commitment to the Camp David Accords; these negotiations are thought to be one of the reasons [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] members decided to assassinate President Sadat.<ref>{{Cite web|title = 30 years later, questions remain over Sadat killing, peace with Israel - CNN.com|url = http://www.cnn.com/2011/10/06/world/meast/egypt-sadat-assassination/index.html|website = CNN|access-date = 2016-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = 1981: Egypt's President Sadat assassinated|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/6/newsid_2515000/2515841.stm|newspaper = BBC|date = 1981-10-06|access-date = 2016-02-01}}</ref> Additionally, Mubarak continued to work to ensure the gradual decrease in the military's influence and control over Egyptian politics, a decrease begun under Anwar Sadat, with Mubarak replacing many military elites with appointments from the Ministry of Interior instead, and less than 10% of ministerial appointments coming from the military by 2010. The significant economic liberalization of Egypt's economy under Mubarak also led to a drastic reduction in defense expenditures by 2010, compared to previous decades, thereby significantly reducing the military's role in the economy. This gradual reshuffling of power under the Sadat and Mubarak regimes led to tensions between Mubarak's government and the military.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web-a-ebscohost-com.uea.idm.oclc.org/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzEzODAwOThfX0FO0?sid=3400ef3a-8ef0-4581-84af-005627f2af9a@sdc-v-sessmgr02&vid=1&format=EB&rid=1|title=Momani, B & Mohamed E, 2016, Egypt Beyond Tahrir Square, UPCC Book Collections on Project MUSE, Indiana University Press, Bloomington [Accessed 29th December 2019]|last=|first=|date=|website=login.uea.idm.oclc.org|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-12-29}}</ref> Another cause for discontent among Egyptian citizens was Mubarak's administration's disputed [[Human rights in Egypt|human rights record]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Mubarak's Horrific Human Rights Legacy|url = https://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2011/01/mubaraks-human-rights-record|website = Mother Jones|access-date = 2016-02-01}}</ref> In this context, and after nearly 30 years of Mubarak's rule, the President was ousted following 18 days of demonstrations in [[Tahrir Square]] during the [[Egyptian revolution of 2011]].

| footer = '''Top:''' Tahrir Square protesters on February 9 February; '''Bottom:''' The main headquarters of the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] on fire.

Unhappiness among many Egyptians with the autocratic of 30 -year of Dictatorship of President [[Hosni Mubarak]] boiled over in late January 2011 amid the [[Arab Spring]], a series of popular protests and uprisings across the region. Hundreds of thousands of Egyptians occupied several public places across Egypt, including Cairo's [[Tahrir Square]], holding out despite efforts by Mubarak loyalists and police to dislodge them, most notably during the infamous "[[Timeline of the Egyptian revolution of 2011#2 February – Camel Battle|Battle of the Camel]]". In the beginning, tensions were high between the police and protesters with violence breaking out in [[Suez]] and [[Alexandria]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12272836 | title=Egypt protests: Three killed in 'day of revolt' | publisher=BBC | date=26 January 2011 | accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2011/01/27/violent-clashes-in-suez-police-department-set-on-fire/ | title=Violent clashes in Suez, police station set on fire | newspaper=Daily News Egypt | date=27 January 2011 | accessdate=8 March 2015 | author=Al-A’asar, Marwa}}</ref> The government took a hard line, using riot-control tactics, and [[Internet censorship in the Arab Spring#Egypt|shutting down the internet]] and telecom networks. But by the 28th the protests were continuing and the police had retreated.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/114/32352/Egypt/-January-Revolution-continues/Timeline-Egypts-year-of-revolution.aspx | title=Timeline: Egypt's year of revolution | newspaper=Al-Ahram | date=24 January 2012 | accessdate=8 March 2015 |author1=Maher, Hatem |author2=Eskandar, Wael }}</ref> Mubarak offered some concessions, such as appointing [[Omar Suleiman]] to the long-vacant office of [[Vice President of Egypt|vice president]]. He also announced that he would not seek re-election. None of these satisfied protesters, and under international pressure and lacking the support of Egypt's powerful [[Egyptian Armed Forces|military]]. On 10 February 2011 Mubarak handed over power to Suleiman and resigned as president the following day. According to a government fact-finding mission's report the 18-day uprising left at least 846 civilians killed and more than 6,400 injured .<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13134956 | title=Egypt unrest: 846 killed in protests - official toll | publisher=BBC | date=19 April 2011 | accessdate=9 January 2015}}</ref>

The Muslim Brotherhood (MB) is a multinational organization that represents the Sunni Islamic community and its interests. MB was founded in Egypt by a person named Hassan Al-Banna in 1928. Al-Banna was a schoolteacher who devoted a large portion of his life as an Islamic scholar. What separated Al-Banna from other Islamic scholars was his idealism. This can be evidenced by how easy Al-Banna's teachings about Sunni Islamism and how it should be propagated and embraced beyond the jurisdiction of the country where it was founded, even after his death. It can be recalled that the Muslim Brotherhood was founded at a time when Egypt was under the colonial rule and control of the United Kingdom. In order to allow the organization to grow, its leaders painted it (both with words and actions) as a simple religious organization that supports civic and social causes. This explains why the MB has been involved in a numerous community and nation-building programs for a significant part of its history. More specific examples of said programs include, but may not be limited to, the establishment of hospitals, initiating education programs that are meant to teach illiterate children (about Sunni Islamism, and to a lesser extent, secularism), and livelihood programs.

Following the real breakaway of Egypt from British colonialism in 1952 (a success for MB), the organization had to focus on a new political goal. That goal was the establishment of an Egyptian government ruled by Sharia law (Ghattas 1). In the wake of the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, the Muslim Brotherhood had been vocal about its support of the overthrow of then longtime president Hosni Mubarak, in favor of Islamist president Mohamed Morsi, which was eventually replaced by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi (Supreme Commander of the Egyptian Armed Forces). Considering the information that has been gathered about the Muslim Brotherhood's origins and its long-term goals in Egypt and in the region (Middle East and North African region), the idea that the Egyptian revolution was not a spontaneous civil demonstration but a well-planned and orchestrated move to change Egypt's political structure, in line of course of the Muslim Brotherhood's long-term plan to install a Sunni Islamist government in Egypt.

In June 2012, [[Egyptian presidential election, 2012|presidential elections]] were held and [[Mohamed Morsi]] allegedly won 51.7% of the vote versus 48.3% for [[Ahmed Shafik]]. President Morsi, a leading member of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and the [[Freedom and Justice Party (Egypt)|Freedom and Justice Party]] (FJP), resigned from both organizations and took office on 30 June 2012.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} This marked the end of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces transition period. Of note is that on the 14th of14 June 2012, just 2 days before the second round of the presidential elections, the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt, who was not changed since appointment by the Mubarak regime, issued a judgement to dissolve the parliament that was elected after the revolution and ruled that the army-backed candidate could stay in the race, in what was widely seen as a double blow for the Muslim Brotherhood. The SCAF implemented this decision on the 16th of16 June 2012 and forbid members by force from entering the parliamentary building. The SCAF also produced a "constitutional declaration" that gave the army officials, who were also not changed since the Mubarak regime exclusive political powers.

On 22 November 2012, after granting himself the powers to "protect" the constitution-writing committee from dissolution by the court, and the power to [[legislate]] without judicial oversight or review of his acts until a new parliament is elected,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=David|title=Citing Deadlock, Egypt's Leader Seizes New Power and Plans Mubarak Retrial|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/23/world/middleeast/egypts-president-morsi-gives-himself-new-powers.html?_r=0|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> [[Mohamed Morsi]] followed his decrees by making an effort to push through a referendum on [[2012 Draft Constitution of Egypt|an Islamist-supported draft constitution]], that was drafted by the constitution-writing committee that was elected by the post-revolution parliament.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Beaumont|first1=Peter|title=Mohamed Morsi signs Egypt's new constitution into law|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/26/mohamed-morsi-egypt-constitution-law|publisherwork=theguardianThe Guardian|accessdate=26 September 2014}}</ref>

On 3 July, the [[Egyptian Armed Forces]], headed by [[Abdul Fatah al-Sisi]], acted on its 48 -hour ultimatum by [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|carrying out a coup d'état]] ousting President [[Mohamed Morsi]],<ref name=aj0307>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/07/20137319828176718.html|title=President Morsi overthrown in Egypt|publisher=|accessdate=25 June 2015}}</ref> suspending the constitution, appointing the head of the constitutional court as interim national leader, and calling for early elections.<ref name=aj0307/>

On 14 August 2013, security forces raided the sit-ins at Rabaa and Nahda, resulting in a [[August 2013 Rabaa massacre|massacre of at least 904 pro-Morsi demonstrators]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=McElroy|first1=Damien|last2=Loveluck|first2=Louisa|title=Egypt crisis: Cairo death toll 'could rise significantly'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/10244882/Egypt-crisis-Cairo-death-toll-could-rise-significantly.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|accessdate=26 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="DeathToll-16-8-13">{{Cite news|author=Mohsen, Manar |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |title=Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638 |newspaper=Daily News Egypt |date=16 August 2013 |accessdate=19 August 2013 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Iz4po5fD?url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |archivedate=19 August 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Death toll from Egypt violence rises to 638: Health ministry|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/79160.aspx|publisher=Ahram Online|accessdate=26 September 2014}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] described the event as [[crimes against humanity]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/08/12/egypt-rab-killings-likely-crimes-against-humanity |title=Egypt: Rab'a Killings Likely Crimes against Humanity &#124; Human Rights Watch |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date= |accessdate=2014-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140816131321/http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/08/12/egypt-rab-killings-likely-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=16 August 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the military appointed interim government declared a month-long nighttime curfew which was extended a further two months.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/israeli-prison-service-process-releasing-26-palestinian-prisoners-19948982 |title=International News &#124; World News - ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-02}}</ref>

On 24 March 2014, an Egyptian court sentenced 529 suspected members of the Muslim Brotherhood [[Capital punishment|to death]] accused of attacking a police station.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1095268/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death|title=Egyptian Court ordered Death sentence to 529 Members|publisher=Dawn.com|date=24 March 2014|accessdate=24 March 2014}}</ref> By 2017, approximately 60,000 political prisoners according to independent counts and human rights groups have been imprisoned since the coup.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21603071-president-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-fails-bring-enough-voters-ballot-box A coronation flop: President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi fails to bring enough voters to the ballot box], economist.com.</ref><ref>https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/06/egypt-torture-epidemic-may-be-crime-against-humanity</ref><ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/24/egypt-death-sentence-529-morsi-supporters Egypt sentences to death 529 supporters of Mohamed Morsi]". ''The Guardian''. 24 March 2014.</ref>

It is still debatable whether the toppling of Mubarak's regime was good for Egypt or not. What is clear, however, is that it has led to a beginning of a new chapter in the country's history, one that is marked by revolutionary restructuring of its political and social order (Sowners and Toensing 1-320). The Muslim Brotherhood's participation in the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 was instrumental, as it led to the resurgence of Islamism in Egyptian politics, and by extension, the Egyptian experience. It is worth mentioning that this outcome was all too predictable, because the Muslim Brotherhood had already been gaining a lot of influence not only as an organization but also as an ideological movement, even before the toppling of Mubarak's regime. In Guirguis’Guirguis' (187-226) paper, he also described how the Muslim Brotherhood took advantage of Mubarak's regime's collapse in order to further its goal of installing a new government based on the Sharia law. On the positive side, the post-Mubarak Egypt has led to positive developments, including but may not be limited to the rise of political parties—enabling the creation of further checks and balances against authoritarianism, trade and economic liberalization, and the establishment of independent social groups and unions, all of which lead to a more robust and dynamic democratic society (Joya 367-386). The market-friendly policies of the Muslim Brotherhood and its leaders made it very popular among the people of Egypt. The organization has long been known for their policies that support the development of free markets, and the liberalization of Egypt's rather obsolete trade and economic policies. The only problem that remains in Egypt's post-Mubarak era is who (or rather what organization) should be given the authority to control the government and lead its people towards prosperity and freedom. In Selim's (177-199) paper, he argued that there are currently three camps that are vying for that position, in what he refers to as the Triangle of Counter-Revolution. These three camps are represented by the Muslim Brotherhood, The Egyptian Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), and the United States. Selim (177-199) suggested that these three camps are currently engaged in a counter-revolutionary conflict against each other in Egypt, a development that prevents the nation from moving on from the Egyptian Revolution.

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