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In March 1921, the Colonial Secretary [[Winston Churchill]] visited Jerusalem and following a discussion with [[Emir Abdullah]], it was agreed that Transjordan was to be added to the proposed Palestine Mandate, but that the [[Jewish National Home]] objective for the proposed [[British Mandate for Palestine (legal instrument)|Palestine Mandate]] would not apply to the territory.
In July 1922, the [[League of Nations]] approved the Palestine Mandate, which came into effect in 1923 after a dispute between France and Italy over the Syria Mandate was settled. The Mandate stated that Britain could ‘postpone or withhold’ application of the provisions dealing with the 'Jewish National Home' in the territory east of the [[Jordan River]], then called [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]]. In September 1922, following Abdullah's probation period,<ref name="Robins2004">{{cite book|author=Philip Robins|title=A History of Jordan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dw_D0_WP-hQC&pg=PA16|date=9 February 2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59895-8|pages=16–}}</ref> the British government [[Transjordan memorandum|presented a memorandum]] to the League of Nations defining the border of Transjordan and confirming its exclusion from all the provisions dealing with Jewish settlement.
Historian and political scientist [[Adam Garfinkle]] writes that the public clarification and implementation of Article 25, more than a year after it was added to the mandate, misled some "into imagining that Transjordanian territory was covered by the conditions of the Mandate as to the Jewish National Home before August 1921".{{efn|Adam Garfinkle explained, "After the Cairo Conference of March 1921, whereupon the Emirate of Transjordan was created, Article 25 pertaining to Transjordan was added to the draft Mandate – in August 1921. Article 25 notes that Transjordanian territory is not included in the Jewish National Home. This language confuses some readers into imagining that Transjordanian territory was covered by the conditions of the Mandate as to the Jewish National Home before August 1921. Not so; what became Transjordanian territory was not part of the mandate at all. As noted, it was part of the Arabian Chapter problem; it was, in other words, in a state of postwar legal and administrative limbo. And this is also not to speak of the fact that, as of August 1921, the mandates had yet to be approved or take effect."{{sfn|Garfinkle|1998}}}} This would, according to professor of modern Jewish history [[Bernard Wasserstein]], result in "the myth of Palestine's 'first partition' [which became] part of the concept of 'Greater Israel' and of the ideology of Jabotinsky's Revisionist movement".{{efn|name=Wasserstein|Wasserstein writes: "Palestine, therefore, was not partitioned in 1921–1922. Transjordan was not excised but, on the contrary, added to the mandatory area. Zionism was barred from seeking to expand there – but the Balfour Declaration had never previously applied to the area east of the Jordan. Why is this important? Because the myth of Palestine's 'first partition' has become part of the concept of 'Greater Israel' and of the ideology of Jabotinsky's Revisionist movement."{{sfn|Wasserstein|2008|p=105–106}}}}{{efn|Biger wrote, "The results of the Cairo conference were a failure for the Zionist Organization, but Britain had won itself a devoted ally east of the Jordan ... Certain Zionist politicians, and especially the circles that surrounded Ze'ev Jabutinski, regarded the British decisions and the quiet Zionist approval as treason. The call 'Two banks for the Jordan river – this one is ours and so is the other' was heard from then onward. Even the other side of the Jewish political map did not lose its faith in achieving a better political solution, and in a famous song – which was composed many years later – one can find the words 'from Metulla to the Negev, from the sea to the desert'. The allusion is clearly to the desert that lies east of the Trans-Jordanian heights and not to the Judean desert."{{sfn|Biger|2004|p=179}}}} Palestinian-American academic [[Ibrahim Abu-Lughod]], then chair of the [[Northwestern University]] political science department, suggested that the "Jordan as a Palestinian State" references made by Israeli spokespeople may reflect "the same [mis]understanding".{{efn|Abu-Lughod, writing in 1988: "... the statement presented by Mr Herbert Samuel, the first British High Commissioner, to the League of Nations on the administration of Palestine and Transjordan between 1920–25 ... is sufficiently clear on the distinctness of Transjordan and its emergence and leaves no doubt that Palestine did not include Transjordan in prior periods ... The Zionist and later on the Israeli discourse stresses the 'fact' that Israel emerged on only a very small part of Palestine – less than a third – by which they mean the entirety of Palestine and Transjordan; hence the term 'the partitioned State' ... While Israel officially is more circumspect in its pronouncements, its official spokesmen often refer to Jordan as a Palestinian State and claim that Palestinians already therefore have a state of their own. A series of advertisements that appeared in major American newspapers in the course of 1983 claimed openly that Jordan is Palestine. The series was presumably paid for by 'private' sponsors who support Israel but have been reported to be acting on behalf of certain sectors of Israel's leadership. Though rightly discredited as spurious scholarship, Joan Peters's From Time Immemorial (1984) gave much publicity to the Zionist definition of Palestine as including Transjordan (and, throughout, her work utilizes seriously flawed data that specifically refer to 'Western Palestine'). Perhaps Israel's preference for a solution to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in terms of what has become known as the 'Jordanian' option reflects the same understanding."{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1988|pp=197–199}}}}{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1988|pp=197–199}}
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Transjordan gained independence from Britain in 1946 within the above borders, prior to the termination of the Palestinian Mandate.<ref>"Mandates." ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 583–584.</ref>
On 15 May 1948, the Transjordanian [[Arab Legion]], in conjunction with other regular Arab armies, entered what had been Mandate Palestine, seizing control of what come to be called the West Bank, as well as East Jerusalem including the Old City. The [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] was brought to an end by the [[Lausanne Conference of 1949]] at which the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] were concluded. The resulting armistice line is commonly referred to as the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]], and was expressly declared to be a temporary [[demarcation line]], rather than a permanent border, and the Armistice Agreements relegated the issue of permanent borders to future negotiations.
The area to the west of the Jordan River, seized by Jordan during the 1948 War, was [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexed by Jordan in 1950]],<ref name="In the Act of Union, 1950">In the ''Act of Union'', 1950.</ref> with the border being the 1949 armistice line, though Jordan laid claim to all of Mandate Palestine. Jordan’s annexation was only recognised by three countries. The West Bank remained part of Jordan until Israel captured it in 1967, during the [[Six-Day War]], though Jordan continued to claim the territory as its own after that date. In July 1988, Jordan renounced all claims to the West Bank,<ref>[http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/88_july31.html Address to the Nation]</ref><ref name="nytimes1988">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/01/world/hussein-surrenders-claims-west-bank-plo-us-peace-plan-jeopardy-internal-tensions.html|title=U.S. PEACE PLAN IN JEOPARDY; Internal Tensions|date=August 1, 1988|work=The New York Times}}</ref> in favour of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation, as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people".<ref name=Kassim/>
The [[Israel–Jordan peace treaty]], signed on 26 October 1994, resolved all outstanding territorial and border issues between the two countries that had existed since the 1948 War. The treaty specified and fully recognized the international border between Israel and Jordan, with Jordan confirming its renunciation of any claim to the West Bank. Upon its signing, the [[Jordan River|Jordan]] and [[Yarmouk River]]s, the [[Dead Sea]], the [[Arabah|Emek Ha'arva/Wadi Araba]] and the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] were officially designated as the borders between Israel and Jordan and between Jordan and the territory occupied by Israel in 1967.<ref name="Jordan Treaty">{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/jordan_treaty.asp|title=The Avalon Project : Treaty of Peace Between the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan}} {{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/jordan_treaty_annex1.asp|title=Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty Annex I|date={{date|1994-10-26}}|publisher=Yale Law School}}</ref> For the latter, the agreement requires that the demarcation use a different presentation, and that it carry the following disclaimer: <blockquote> "This line is the administrative boundary between Jordan and the territory which came under Israeli military government control in 1967. Any treatment of this line shall be without prejudice to the status of the territory."<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/annex1.html Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty, Annex I, Israel-Jordan International Boundary Delimitation and Demarcation]</ref></blockquote>
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[[File:GolanHistoricalBorders.svg|thumbnail|right|260px|Borders in the region of the [[Sea of Galilee]] and [[Golan Heights]], showing the Ottoman boundaries, the 1920 agreement and the 1923 agreement]]
In 1923, an agreement between the United Kingdom and France, known as the [[Paulet–Newcombe Agreement]], established the border between the soon-to-be formalised [[British Mandate for Palestine (legal instrument)|British Mandate of Palestine]] and the [[French Mandate of Syria]].<ref name="1923Agreement" /> The British handed over the southern Golan Heights to the French in return for the northern [[Jordan Valley (Middle East)|Jordan Valley]]. The border was drawn so that both sides of the [[Jordan River]] and the whole of the [[Sea of Galilee]], including a 10-metre-wide strip along the northeastern shore, were part of Palestine.<ref>[http://www.caabu.org/press/focus/gee.html CAABU :: The Council for Arab-British Understanding<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609222925/http://www.caabu.org/press/focus/gee.html |date=9 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>''The boundaries of modern Palestine, 1840–1947'', (2004), by Gideon Biger. Publisher Rutledge Curzon. {{ISBN|978-0-7146-5654-0}}.</ref>
===Syria: subsequent changes===
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[[File:BlueLine.jpg|thumb|400px|The Blue Line covers the Lebanese–Israeli border; an extension covers the Lebanese–Golan Heights boundary.]]
On March 14, 1978, Israel launched [[Operation Litani]], occupying the area south of the [[Litani River]], excepting [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] (see map). In response to the invasion, the UN Security Council passed [[UN Security Council Resolution 425|Council Resolution 425]] and Resolution 426 calling for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, but turned over their positions inside Lebanon to their ally, the [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA).{{
The United Nations in June 2000 was called upon to decide the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] border<!-- UNSC Res 425 "Calls for strict respect for the territorial integrity, sovereignty and political independence of Lebanon within its internationally recognized boundaries" --> to determine whether Israel had fully withdrawn from Lebanon in compliance with [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]]. This line came to be called the [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|Blue Line]]. At the same time, the United Nations did not have to consider the legality of the boundary between Lebanon and the Israeli-controlled Golan Heights, as that was not required for the purpose of Council Resolution 425. Accordingly, the Armistice Demarcation Line between Lebanon and the Israeli-controlled Golan Heights is expressly not to be called the Blue Line.{{
The Blue Line, which the UN had to determine, was the line of deployment of the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] before March 14, 1978, when Israel invaded Lebanon. In effect that line was recognised by both Lebanon and by Israel as the international border, and not just as the Armistice Demarcation Line of 1949{{Citation needed|reason=Some document needs to be cited. UNSC Res 425 "Calls for strict respect for the territorial integrity, sovereignty and political independence of Lebanon within its internationally recognized boundaries" it doesn't mention Israeli sovereignty over territories acquired in the 1948 war|date=November 2011}} (what is commonly called the Green Line) following the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].{{
On April 17, 2000, Israel announced that it would withdraw its forces from Lebanon. The Lebanese government refused to take part in marking the border. The UN thus conducted its own survey based on the line for the purpose of Council Resolution 425, which called for "strict respect for the territorial integrity, sovereignty and political independence of Lebanon within its internationally recognized boundaries".{{
From May 24 to June 7, 2000, the [[UN Special Envoy]] heard views in Israel, Lebanon and Syria. The United Nations cartographer and his team, assisted by UNIFIL, worked on the ground to identify a line to be adopted for the practical purposes of confirming the Israeli withdrawal. While it was agreed that this would not be a formal border demarcation, the aim was to identify a line on the ground closely conforming to the internationally recognized boundaries of Lebanon, based on the best available cartographic and other documentary evidence. On May 25, 2000, Israel notified the [[UN Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] that it had redeployed its forces in compliance with Council Resolution 425, that is to the Internationally recognized Lebanese border. On June 7, the completed map showing the withdrawal line was formally transmitted by the force commander of UNIFIL to his Lebanese and Israeli counterparts. Notwithstanding their reservations about the line, the governments of Israel and Lebanon confirmed that identifying this line was solely the responsibility of the United Nations and that they would respect the line as identified.{{
On June 8, 2000, UNIFIL teams commenced the work of verifying the Israeli withdrawal behind the line.{{
===The Blue Line===
The [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|Blue Line]] identified by the United Nations in 2000 as the border of Lebanon, from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[Hasbani River]], closely approximates the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] set under the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|1949 armistice agreement]] between Lebanon and Israel.<ref>[http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS075.pdf International Boundary Study - Israel-Lebanon Boundary, 15 February 1967] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060916035757/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS075.pdf |date=16 September 2006 }}</ref> The area east of the Hasbani River is considered part of Syria and included in the Golan Heights.{{
The armistice agreement between Lebanon and Israel was signed on March 23, 1949. The main points were:{{
* The terms of the agreement were ''dictated exclusively by military considerations''.
* The armistice line (i.e., "Green Line") was the international border, which corresponds to the 1923 Mandate border between the Lebanon and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] (see: [[Treaty of Sèvres]]).
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In 1923, 38 boundary markers were placed along the 49-mile (78 km) boundary and a detailed text description was published.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924211639/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/numericalibs-template.html |title=International Boundary Study - Numerical List |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=2020-06-01}}</ref> The 2000 Blue Line differs in about a half dozen short stretches from the 1949 line, although never by more than {{convert|475|m}}.{{Citation needed|reason=Mar, 2008|date=March 2008}}
Between 1950 and 1967, Israeli and Lebanese surveyors managed to complete 25 non-contiguous kilometers and mark (but not sign) another quarter of the international border.{{
On June 16, the [[UN Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] reported to the [[Security Council]] that Israel had withdrawn its forces from Lebanon in accordance with Council Resolution 425 and met the requirements defined in his report of May 22, 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html|title=SECURITY COUNCIL ENDORSES SECRETARY-GENERAL"S CONCLUSION ON ISR"LI WITHDRAWAL FROM LEBANON AS OF 16 JUNE - Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|publisher=}}</ref> The withdrawal line has been termed the Blue Line in all official UN communications since.{{
===Conflict over the Shebaa Farms===
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===End of British Mandate===
[[File:Declaration of State of Israel 1948 2.jpg|thumb|right|David Ben-Gurion proclaiming independence beneath a large portrait of [[Theodor Herzl]], founder of modern [[Zionism]]]]
On 29 November 1947, the [[General Assembly of the United Nations|UN General Assembly]] adopted Resolution 181 (II) recommending ''the adoption and implementation'' of a [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|plan to partition Palestine]] into "Independent Arab and Jewish States" and a "Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem" administered by the United Nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |title=Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine: 29 November 1947: Retrieved 22 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524094913/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |archivedate=24 May 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> The [[Jewish Agency for Palestine]], on behalf of the Jewish community, despite its misgivings, indicated acceptance of the plan. With a few exceptions, the Arab leaders and governments rejected the plan of partition in the resolution and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition. Britain declared that the Mandate was to end on 15 May 1948.
On 14 May 1948, [[David Ben-Gurion]], in a ceremony in [[Tel Aviv]], declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in [[Eretz-Israel]], to be known as the State of Israel."<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel: 14 May 1948: Retrieved 22 March 2012]</ref> Epstein, Agent, Provisional Government of Israel said in a letter to President Truman seeking recognition from the U.S government, sent immediately after the Declaration of 14 May 1948, "that the state of Israel has been proclaimed as an independent republic within frontiers approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations in its Resolution of November 29, 1947",<ref>[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/israel/large/documents/newPDF/49.pdf#zoom=100: Letter From the Agent of the Provisional Government of Israel to the President of the United States: May 15, 1948: Harry S. Truman Library & Museum: The Recognition of the State of Israel: Retrieved 30 December 2014]</ref> (ie., within the area designated as the “Jewish state” in the partition plan).
[[File:Israel green lines.png|right|thumb|upright|Israel's 1949 Green Line (green thin line) and demilitarized zones (green thick line/areas)]]
On 15 May, regular Arab armies entered what had been Mandate Palestine. This intervention/invasion marked the transition of the [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine]] into the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. The tide of battle soon turned against the Arabs, and Israel then launched a series of military offensives, greatly expanding its territorial holdings. The end of the war saw the [[Lausanne Conference of 1949]]. Following internationally supervised Arab-Israeli negotiations, a boundary based on the cease-fire lines of the war with minor territorial adjustments, commonly referred to as the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]], was agreed upon in the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]]. The Green Line was expressly declared in the Armistice Agreements as a temporary [[demarcation line]], rather than a permanent border, and the Armistice Agreements relegated the issue of permanent borders to future negotiations. The area to the west of the Jordan River came to be called the West Bank, and was [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexed by Jordan]] in 1950;<ref
On September 22, 1948, during a truce in the war, the [[Provisional State Council]] of Israel passed a law to annex all land that Israel had captured in the war, and declaring that from then on, any part of Palestine taken by the Israeli army would automatically be annexed to Israel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israellawresourcecenter.org/israellaws/fulltext/areajurisdictionpowersord.htm|title=Area of Jurisdiction and Powers Ordinance (1948)|access-date=January 27, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622033259/http://www.israellawresourcecenter.org/israellaws/fulltext/areajurisdictionpowersord.htm|archive-date=June 22, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> This, effectively, annexed to Israel all land within the Green Line, though the armistice agreements were declared to be temporary and not permanent borders.
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In 2011, Palestine submitted an application for membership to the United Nations, using the borders for military administration that existed before 1967,<ref name="UN Multimedia">{{cite web|url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2011/09/palestinian-authority-applies-for-full-un-membership/|title=Palestinian Authority applies for full UN membership|access-date={{date|2015-03-27}}|publisher=United Nations Radio|date={{date|2011-09-23}}}}</ref> effectively the 1949 armistice line or Green Line. As Israel does not recognize the [[State of Palestine]], Jordan's borders with Israel remain unclear, at least in the sector of the West Bank.
Israel and the Palestinian territories now lay entirely within the boundaries of former British Mandate Palestine. By the [[Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty]] of 1979, Egypt renounced all claims to the Gaza Strip. In 1988, Jordan renounced all claims to the West Bank;<ref name="nytimes1988"/> this was made official in the [[Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace]] of 1994. The Green Line is Israel's contested boundary with the Palestinian territories.
The boundaries of a future Palestinian State, vis-a-vis Israel, are subject to ongoing negotiations in the [[Israel–Palestinian peace process]]. Israel's [[Israeli West Bank barrier|West Bank Wall]], which encompasses almost all [[Israeli settlement]]s, including all three major cities, and only a minor Palestinian population, was declared by Prime Minister [[Ehud Olmert]] as running roughly along the future borders of Israel.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}} Israeli Foreign Minister [[Avigdor Lieberman]] [[Lieberman Plan|proposed]] that the Arab-Israeli border region known as the [[Triangle (Israel)|Triangle]] be removed from Israeli sovereignty and transferred to the Palestinian Authority, in exchange for the border settlement blocs. The [[Palestinian Authority]] claims all of these territories (including East Jerusalem) for a future [[Palestinian State]], and its position is supported by the Arab League in the 2002 [[Arab Peace Initiative]] which calls for the return by Israel to "the 1967 borders". While Israel has expressed desire to annex the border settlement blocs and keep East Jerusalem, its border with Gaza has largely been solidified, especially following [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Israel's withdrawal]] in 2005. Israel has not made claims to any portion of Gazan territory and offered the entire area to Palestinians as part of the [[2000 Camp David Summit]].
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===Status of Jerusalem===
{{main|Status of Jerusalem}}[[File:JerusalemEastAndWest.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Jerusalem municipal area]]
The status and boundary of Jerusalem continue to be in dispute.
Following the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], Israel was in control of [[West Jerusalem]] while [[Jordan]] was in control of [[East Jerusalem]] (including the walled [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] in which most the holy places are located). During the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967, Israel gained control of the [[West Bank]], as well as East Jerusalem, and shortly after extended Jerusalem’s municipality [[city limits]] to cover the whole of East Jerusalem and the surrounding area, and applied its laws, jurisdiction, and administration to that territory. In 1980, the [[Knesset]] passed the [[Jerusalem Law]], declaring Jerusalem to be the "complete and united" capital of Israel. The Israeli government offered citizenship to the Palestinian residents of that territory, most of whom refused, and are treated today as [[permanent residency|permanent residents]] under Israeli law. According to the Israeli rights organisation, [[HaMoked|Hamoked]], if these Palestinians live abroad for seven years, or gain citizenship or residency elsewhere, they lose their Israeli residency status.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8390717.stm |title=Jerusalem residency losses rise|date=December 2, 2009|publisher=|via=bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>Korman, Sharon (2005). The right to conquest: the acquisition of territory by force in international law and practice. Oxford University Press US. pp. 250–260. {{ISBN|978-0-19-828007-1}}</ref>
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==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Borders of Israel}}
[[Category:Foreign relations of Israel]]▼
[[Category:Borders of Israel| ]]
▲[[Category:Foreign relations of Israel]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Arab–Israeli conflict]]
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