Holland and Russia, amounting in all to over 2000, enabled Assmann to compute the monthly and annual means of temperature and wind velocity for each altitude; the German results are given in table at foot of page 269.
The results of these numerous ascents, during these six years, have also been grouped into monthly means that have a reliability proportionate to the number of days on which observations were obtained at a given level, and we are now able to speak of the annual and even of the diurnal periodicity of temperature at different altitudes in the free air with considerable confidence. Some of the most important conclusions to be drawn from the best recent work were published by Hann either in special memoirs or in his Lehrbuch, from which we take the following table. The actual temperatures given in this table have only local importance, but the differences or the vertical gradients doubtless hold good over a large portion of Europe if not of the world.
Temperature in Free Air over Europe 1899–1904.
| Altitude. | Annual Averages. | International. | All countries combined. | ||||
| Berlin. 15 Ascents. | Inter- national. 130 Ascents. | Manned balloons. 36 Ascents. | Trappes. 581 Ascents. | ||||
| Feb. | Aug. | ||||||
| Km. | ° C. | °C. | °C. | °C. | ° C. | ° C. | ° C. |
| 0 | — | 8.3 | — | — | + 0.3 | +18.2 | — |
| 1 | + 5.4 | 6.0 | 5.5 | + 5.3 | − 1.4 | +15.1 | 5.0 |
| 2 | + 0.5 | 1.7 | + 0.3 | + 0.7 | − 3.6 | + 102 | 0.5 |
| 3 | − 5.0 | − 3.3 | − 4.4 | − 4.0 | − 8.7 | + 4.8 | − 4.0 |
| 4 | −10.3 | − 9.0 | −10.3 | − 9.4 | −14.7 | − 1.0 | − 9.2 |
| 5 | −16.6 | − 15.3 | −16.5 | −15.4 | −21.9 | − 7.1 | −15.4 |
| 6 | −24.2 | −22.1 | −23.0 | −21.9 | −28.9 | −13.3 | −22.0 |
| 7 | −30.2 | −29.1 | −30.2 | −29.0 | −36.1 | −19.5 | −29.0 |
| 8 | −37.4 | −36.2 | −37.0 | −36.2 | −43.7 | −27.1 | −36.2 |
| 9 | −46.4 | −43.2 | — | −43.5 | −50.1 | −33.8 | −43.2 |
| 10 | — | −49.0 | — | −49.3 | −55.4 | −39.5 | −49.2 |
The differences of temperature between any layer and those above it and below it, or the vertical gradients at each level go through annual periodical changes quite analogous to those derived from mountain observations; the most rapid falls of temperature, or the largest vertical gradients in the free air occur on the Following dates over Europe.—
| Altitude | Over Germany. | Over Trappes. |
| 1, 2, 3 km. | May, June | May 15 |
| 3, 4, 5 | March | Feb. 15 |
| 5, 6, 7 | April | Jan. 27 |
| 7, 8, 9 | July | July 28 |
| 9, 10, 11 | — | Sept. 14 |
The values above given as deduced from 141 high ascensions at Trappes show that between 11 and 14 km. there was no appreciable diminution of temperature, in other words, the air is warmer than could be expected and therefore has a higher potential temperature. This fact was first confirmed by the Berlin ascensions, and is now recognized as wellnigh universal. The altitude of the base of this warm stratum is about 12 km. in areas of high pressure and I0 km. in areas of low pressure. It is higher as we approach the tropics and above ordinary balloon work near the equator if indeed it exists there. At first this unexpected warmth was considered as possibly a matter of error in the meteorographs, but this idea is now abandoned. Assmann suggested that the altitude is that of the highest cirrus, from which Cleveland Abbe inferred that it had something to do with the absorption of the solar and terrestrial heat by dissolving cirri. But the most plausible explanation is that published simultaneously in September 1908 by W. J. Humphreys of Washington, and Ernest Gold of London.
| Month. | Average temperature gradient per 100 metres. | Altitude (metres). | Total Fall of Temperature from Ground upward. | ||||
| Altitudes. | October to March. | April to September. | |||||
| From 0 to 1000 metres. | From 1000 to 2000 metres. | Cloudiness 0–7. | Cloudiness 8–10. | Cloudiness 0–7. | Cloudiness 8–10. | ||
| °C. | °C. | °C. | °C. | °C. | °C. | ||
| January | 0.11 | 0.58 | 2000 | 8.24 | 7.63 | 15.33 | 14.18 |
| February | 0.39 | 0.30 | 1800 | 7.22 | 6.60 | 14.20 | 12.97 |
| March | 0.33 | 0.40 | 1600 | 6.28 | 6.04 | 13.01 | 11.75 |
| April | 0.73 | 0.48 | 1400 | 5.35 | 5.15 | 11.66 | 10.59 |
| May | 0.90 | 0.66 | 1200 | 4.48 | 4.35 | 10.32 | 9.32 |
| June | 0.99 | 0.72 | 1000 | 3.62 | 3.52 | 9.13 | 7.96 |
| July | 0.96 | 0.67 | 800 | 2.20 | 2.82 | 7.55 | 6.65 |
| August | 0.86 | 0.62 | 600 | 1.54 | 2.33 | 5.77 | 5.23 |
| September | 0.77 | 0.58 | 400 | 0.65 | 1.85 | 3.88 | 3.63 |
| October | 0.57 | 0.43 | 200 | 0.35 | 1.05 | 1.88 | 1.76 |
| November | 0.36 | 0.53 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| December | 0.30 | 0.53 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Year | 0.61 | 0.53 | |||||
The daily diagrams in Das Wetter show that both the irregular and the periodic and the geographic variations of temperature in the upper strata are unexpectedly large, almost as large as at the earth's surface, so that the uniform temperature of space that was formerly supposed to prevail in the upper air must be looked for, if at all, far above the level to which sounding balloons have as yet attained. It is evident that both horizontal and vertical convection currents of great importance really occur at these great altitudes. These upper currents cannot be due to any very local influence at the earth's surface, but only to the interchange of the air over the oceans and continents or between the polar and equatorial regions. They constitute the important feature of the so-called general circulation of the atmosphere, which we have hitherto mistakenly thought of as confined to lower levels; their general direction is from west to east over all parts of the globe as far as yet known, showing that they are controlled by the rotation of the earth. It is likely that masses of air having special temperature conditions or clouds of vapour dust such as came from Krakatoa, may be carried in these high currents around the globe perhaps several times before being dissipated.
The average eastward movement or the west wind at 3 km. above Germany is 10.7 m. per sec. or 1° of longitude (at 45° latitude) in 42.4 minutes, or such as to describe the whole circumference of this small circle in 10.5 days. At the equator above the calm belt the velocity westward or the east wind as given by Krakatoa volcanic-dust phenomena was 34.5 m per sec., on 30° of a great circle daily, or around the equator in 12.5 days, while its poleward movement was only, 1° per day or 1.3 metre per second. The average motion of the storm centres moving westward in northern tropical and equatorial regions but eastward in the north temperate zone is at the rate of one circumference or a small circle at latitude 45° in 19 days. Observations of the cloud movements gave Professor Bigelow the following results for the United States:—
| Altitude. | Moving eastward. | Moving westward. |
| 10.0 km. | 36 m. p.s. | 20 m. p.s. |
| 7.5 | 35 | 2.0 |
| 5.0 | 26 | 1.5 |
| 3.0 | 20 | 1.0 |
| 1.0 | 8 | 0.5 |
| 0 | 4 |
Evidently, therefore, the great west wind (that James H. Coffin deduced from his work on the winds of the northern hemisphere and that William Ferrel deduced from his theoretical studies) represents with its gentle movement poleward a factor of fundamental importance. We must consider all our meteorological phenomena
except at the equator as existing beneath and controlled, if not
