Syrian civil war: Difference between revisions

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|image=[[File:Huge demonstration in Homs against Al Assad regime.jpg|300px]]
|image=[[File:Huge demonstration in Homs against Al Assad regime.jpg|300px]]
|caption= Anti-government demonstration in [[Homs]], 2011
|caption= Anti-government demonstration in [[Homs]], 2011
|date= {{Start date|2011|03|15|df=yes}} – ''ongoing''({{Age in months, weeks and days|year1=2011|month1=03|day1=15}})
|date= {{Start date|2011|03|15|df=yes}} – ''ongoing''<br />({{Age in months, weeks and days|year1=2011|month1=03|day1=15}})
|place=[[Syria]]
|place=[[Syria]]
|casus=
|casus=
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{{flag|Kurdistan}} [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]
{{flag|Kurdistan}} [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]


''Military support for the government from'':
''Military support for the government from'': <br>
{{flag|Iran}}
{{flag|Iran}}<ref name="aljazeera.com"/><br />
[[File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg|23px]] [[Hezbollah]]
[[File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg|23px]] [[Hezbollah]]<ref name="aus"/><ref name=IranianFighters/><ref name=over120/><br />


|combatant2={{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Syrian opposition]]'''
|combatant2={{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Syrian opposition]]'''
*[[Free Syrian Army]]
*[[Free Syrian Army]]<ref name=worldtribune1/>
*[[Syrian Liberation Army]]{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,2106648,00.html/ |title =Syrian Rebels Plot Their Next Moves: A TIME Exclusive |work=TIME | date=11 February 2012}}
*[[Syrian Liberation Army]]<ref name="SLA">{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,2106648,00.html/ |title =Syrian Rebels Plot Their Next Moves: A TIME Exclusive |work=TIME | date=11 February 2012}}</ref>
*Syrian Revolutionary Front{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/04/world/meast/syria-unrest/?hpt=hp_t2 |title=Russian, EU leaders to take up Syria issue as U.N. considers options |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
*Syrian Revolutionary Front<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/04/world/meast/syria-unrest/?hpt=hp_t2 |title=Russian, EU leaders to take up Syria issue as U.N. considers options |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
[[File:Flag of Jihad.svg|22px]] '''Foreign Mujahideen'''<small><ref name=fighterstrickle/><ref name=Sunnifighters/><ref>[http://articles.boston.com/2012-07-05/news/32553534_1_al-qaida-linked-sunni-insurgents-shiite-political-rivals-mosul Iraq says al-Qaida fighters flowing into Syria]</ref></small>
[[File:Flag of Jihad.svg|22px]] '''Foreign Mujahideen'''
*[[Al-Nusra Front to Protect the Levant]]
*[[Al-Nusra Front to Protect the Levant]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of al-Qaeda.svg}} [[al-Qaeda]] <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9396256/Al-Qaeda-tries-to-carve-out-a-war-for-itself-in-Syria.html Al-Qaeda tries to carve out a war for itself in Syria]</ref>
*{{flagicon image|Flag of al-Qaeda.svg}}
*[[Fatah al-Islam]]
*[[Fatah al-Islam]]<ref name=fatahalsislm/>
''Military support for the opposition from:'' <br />
{{flag|Turkey}}
{{flag|Turkey}}<ref name=CIASaid>{{cite news|last=Schmitt|first=Eric|title=C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/21/world/middleeast/cia-said-to-aid-in-steering-arms-to-syrian-rebels.html?pagewanted=all|accessdate=4 July 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=21 June 2012}}</ref><br />
{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}<small><ref name=CIASaid/><ref name=Exclusive>{{cite news|author=Justin Vela |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/exclusive-arab-states-arm-rebels-as-un-talks-of-syrian-civil-war-7845026.html |title=Exclusive: Arab states arm rebels as UN talks of Syrian civil war |publisher=Independent.co.uk |date=2012-06-13 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref name=RebelsAwait>{{cite web|last=Abouzeid |first=Rania |url=http://world.time.com/2012/06/22/opening-the-weapons-tap-syrias-rebels-await-fresh-and-free-ammo/ |title=Opening the Weapons Tap: Syria’s Rebels Await Fresh and Free Ammo |publisher=World.time.com |date=2012-06-22 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref></small><br />
{{flag|Qatar}}
{{flag|Qatar}}<ref name=CIASaid/><ref name=Exclusive/><ref name=RebelsAwait/><br />


|commander1=
|commander1=
{{flagicon|Syria}} '''[[Bashar al-Assad]]''''''[[President of Syria]]'''
{{flagicon|Syria}} '''[[Bashar al-Assad]]'''<br /><small>'''[[President of Syria]]'''</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Riyad Farid Hijab]]Prime Minister of Syria
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Riyad Farid Hijab]]<br /><small>Prime Minister of Syria</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Dawoud Rajiha]]Defense Minister
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Dawoud Rajiha]]<br /><small>Defense Minister</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Fahed al-Jasem el-Freij]]Chief Of Staff (Syrian Army)
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Fahed al-Jasem el-Freij]]<br /><small>Chief Of Staff (Syrian Army)</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Maher al-Assad]][[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard Commander]]
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Maher al-Assad]]<br /><small>[[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard Commander]]</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Mohammad Ibrahim al-Shaar]]Interior Minister
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Mohammad Ibrahim al-Shaar]]<br /><small>Interior Minister</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Assef Shawkat]]Deputy Defense Minister and Intelligence head
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Assef Shawkat]]<br /><small>Deputy Defense Minister and Intelligence head</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Walid Muallem]]Foreign Affairs and Expatriates Minister
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Walid Muallem]]<br /><small>Foreign Affairs and Expatriates Minister</small><br/>
{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Qasem Soleimani]]Quds Force Commander- IRG
{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Qasem Soleimani]]<br /><small>Quds Force Commander- IRG</small>
|commander2=
|commander2=
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Abdulbaset Sieda]]''''''Syrian National Council Chairman'''
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Abdulbaset Sieda]]'''<br /><small>'''Syrian National Council Chairman'''</small><br/>
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Burhan Ghalioun]]Syrian National Council ex-Chairman (29 August 2011 – 10 June 2012)
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Burhan Ghalioun]]<br /><small>Syrian National Council ex-Chairman (29 August 2011 – 10 June 2012)</small><br/>
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Riad al-Asaad]]'''Free Syrian Army Commander{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Mustafa Ahmed al-Sheikh]]'''Higher Military Council Head
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Riad al-Asaad]]'''<br /><small>Free Syrian Army Commander</small><br/>{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} '''[[Mustafa Ahmed al-Sheikh]]'''<br /><small>Higher Military Council Head</small><br/>
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Ali Sadreddine Bayanouni]]Muslim Brotherhood Leader
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Ali Sadreddine Bayanouni]]<br /><small>Muslim Brotherhood Leader</small><br/>
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Haitham al-Maleh]]Human Rights in Syria spokesman
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Haitham al-Maleh]]<br /><small>Human Rights in Syria spokesman</small><br/>
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Samir Nashar]]Secretariat of the Damascus Declaration Member
{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} [[Samir Nashar]]<br /><small>Secretariat of the Damascus Declaration Member</small><br/>
|strength1={{flagicon|Syria}} [[Syrian Armed Forces]]: 304,000 (at peak){{cite web|url=http://globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Syria |title=Syria Military Strength |publisher=Globalfirepower.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
|strength1={{flagicon|Syria}} [[Syrian Armed Forces]]: 304,000 (at peak)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Syria |title=Syria Military Strength |publisher=Globalfirepower.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[General Security Directorate (Syria)|General Security Directorate]]: 8,000
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[General Security Directorate (Syria)|General Security Directorate]]: 8,000<br/>
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Shabiha]] militiamen: 20,000 fighters
{{flagicon|Syria}} [[Shabiha]] militiamen: 20,000 fighters<br/>
{{flag|Kurdistan}} [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]: 4,500 fighters[http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/7/syriakurd530.htm Danger of Kurdish civil war in Syrian Kurdistan]
{{flag|Kurdistan}} [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]: 4,500 fighters<ref>[http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/7/syriakurd530.htm Danger of Kurdish civil war in Syrian Kurdistan]</ref>
|strength2=40,000{{citation |separator= . |last= Holliday |first= Joseph |month= June |year= 2012 |title= Syria's Maturing Insurgency |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Syrias_MaturingInsurgency_21June2012.pdf |series= Middle East Security Report 5 |publisher= [[Institute for the Study of War]] |page= 7 |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}–60,000[http://m.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/syrians-in-ontario-give-rebels-reinforcements-from-afar/article4385303/?service=mobile Syrians in Ontario give rebels reinforcements from afar] fighters
|strength2=40,000<ref>{{citation |separator= . |last= Holliday |first= Joseph |month= June |year= 2012 |title= Syria's Maturing Insurgency |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Syrias_MaturingInsurgency_21June2012.pdf |series= Middle East Security Report 5 |publisher= [[Institute for the Study of War]] |page= 7 |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>–60,000<ref>[http://m.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/syrians-in-ontario-give-rebels-reinforcements-from-afar/article4385303/?service=mobile Syrians in Ontario give rebels reinforcements from afar]</ref> fighters
*{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} 18,000-30,000 defectors{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/157550 |title=Syria Army Lost 6% of Armored Force – Report |publisher=Israelnationalnews.com |date=2012-05-07 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
*{{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} 18,000-30,000 defectors<ref name="6%">{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/157550 |title=Syria Army Lost 6% of Armored Force – Report |publisher=Israelnationalnews.com |date=2012-05-07 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
*[[File:Flag of Jihad.svg|22px]] 500-900 foreign [[Mujahideen]][www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/pdf/foreign-fighters-trickle-into-the-syrian-rebellion]
*[[File:Flag of Jihad.svg|22px]] 500-900 foreign [[Mujahideen]]<ref name=fighterstrickle>[www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/pdf/foreign-fighters-trickle-into-the-syrian-rebellion]</ref>
|casualties1={{flagicon|Syria}} ''Syrian security forces''
|casualties1={{flagicon|Syria}} ''Syrian security forces''
4,481–5,000 soldiers and policemen killed, 68 militiamen killed
4,481<ref name=SOHR/>–5,000<ref name=3000killed/><ref name=deathorexchange/> soldiers and policemen killed, 68 militiamen killed<ref name=Shabiha/><br>
[[File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg|23px]] ''Hezbollah''
[[File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg|23px]] ''Hezbollah''<br>
147 killed <small></small><ref name=IranianFighters/><ref name=over120/><br>
147 killed
{{flagicon|Iran}} ''Iranian Basij''
{{flagicon|Iran}} ''Iranian Basij''<br>
85 killed <small></small><ref name=IranianFighters/><ref name=over120/><ref name=ohchr/>
85 killed
|casualties2={{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} ''Syrian rebels and protesters''
|casualties2={{flagicon image|Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg}} ''Syrian rebels and protesters''
4,421 fighters* ([[Syrian uprising (2011–present)#Combatant deaths|see here]]) and 979–1,423 protesters killed,26,066 protesters and fighters captured{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} ''Foreign [[Mujahideen]]''36 killed
4,421 fighters* ([[Syrian uprising (2011–present)#Combatant deaths|see here]]) and 979–1,423 protesters killed,<ref name="almost11,500" /><br>26,066 protesters and fighters captured<ref name="Violations Documenting Center"/><br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} ''Foreign [[Mujahideen]]''<br>36 killed<ref name=Sunnifighters/><br>
|casualties3=17,704–18,218 Syrians killed overall (opposition claims)**158 foreign civilians ([[Syrian uprising (2011–present)#Foreign civilians killed|see here]]) and 2 Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F4 Phantom]] pilots killed240,000 displaced (180,000 [[Syrian refugees|refugees]])
|casualties3=17,704<ref name=SOHR/>–18,218<ref name="Violations Documenting Center"/> Syrians killed overall (opposition claims)**<br>158 foreign civilians ([[Syrian uprising (2011–present)#Foreign civilians killed|see here]]) and 2 Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F4 Phantom]] pilots killed<br>240,000 displaced (180,000 [[Syrian refugees|refugees]])
|notes=*Number possibly higher due to the opposition counting rebels that were not defectors as civilians.**Numbers do not include foreign combatants from both sides or Shabiha militiamen who have been killed.
|notes=*Number possibly higher due to the opposition counting rebels that were not defectors as civilians.<ref name=morethan13000/><br>**Numbers do not include foreign combatants from both sides or Shabiha militiamen who have been killed.
}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Syrian Civil War}}
{{Campaignbox Syrian Civil War}}
</noinclude>
The '''Syrian Civil War''' (also referred to as the '''Syrian uprising'''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18428782 Syria: France calls for UN to enforce Annan plan][http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/06/12/annan-says-syria-conflict-is-now-civil-war/ UN peacekeeping chief calls Syria conflict a civil war][http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/un-syria-now-in-state-of-civil-war-death-toll-at-more-than-4-000-1.399026 UN: Syria now in state of civil war, death toll at more than 4,000][http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/14/uk-syria-crisis-icrc-idUKBRE86D09B20120714?feedType=RSS&feedName=GCA-GoogleNewsUK Exclusive: Syria now an "internal armed conflict" - Red Cross]) is an ongoing internal armed conflict in [[Syria]]. It began on 15 March 2011 with public demonstrations as part of the wider [[Arab Spring]] and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters have demanded the end to nearly five decades of [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba’ath Party rule]], as well as the downfall of [[President of Syria|President]] [[Bashar al-Assad]].
The '''Syrian Civil War''' (also referred to as the '''Syrian uprising'''<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18428782 Syria: France calls for UN to enforce Annan plan]</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/06/12/annan-says-syria-conflict-is-now-civil-war/ UN peacekeeping chief calls Syria conflict a civil war]</ref><ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/un-syria-now-in-state-of-civil-war-death-toll-at-more-than-4-000-1.399026 UN: Syria now in state of civil war, death toll at more than 4,000]</ref><ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/14/uk-syria-crisis-icrc-idUKBRE86D09B20120714?feedType=RSS&feedName=GCA-GoogleNewsUK Exclusive: Syria now an "internal armed conflict" - Red Cross]</ref>) is an ongoing internal armed conflict in [[Syria]]. It began on 15 March 2011 with public demonstrations as part of the wider [[Arab Spring]] and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters have demanded the end to nearly five decades of [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba’ath Party rule]], as well as the downfall of [[President of Syria|President]] [[Bashar al-Assad]].


In the spring of 2011, the Syrian government deployed the [[Syrian Army]] to quell the uprising. Several cities have been besieged,{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13343540 |title=Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama' |work=BBC News |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012}}{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/05/201151722757252901.html |title='Dozens killed' in Syrian border town |work=Al Jazeera |date=17 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011}} and soldiers were reportedly ordered to open fire on civilians.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201168175624573155.html |title='Defected Syria security agent' speaks out |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011}} According to witnesses, soldiers who refused to open fire on civilians were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201168175624573155.html |title='Defected Syria security agent' speaks out |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }} Civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, and unified under the banner of the [[Free Syrian Army]], fighting in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacks an organized leadership. The Syrian government characterizes the insurgency as "armed terrorist groups".{{cite web|author=By the CNN Wire Staff |url=http://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/30852733/detail.html |title=Opposition: 127 Dead As Syrian Forces Target Civilians |publisher=Thedenverchannel.com |date=2012-04-07 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
In the spring of 2011, the Syrian government deployed the [[Syrian Army]] to quell the uprising. Several cities have been besieged,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13343540 |title=Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama' |work=BBC News |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/05/201151722757252901.html |title='Dozens killed' in Syrian border town |work=Al Jazeera |date=17 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> and soldiers were reportedly ordered to open fire on civilians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201168175624573155.html |title='Defected Syria security agent' speaks out |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011}}</ref> According to witnesses, soldiers who refused to open fire on civilians were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201168175624573155.html |title='Defected Syria security agent' speaks out |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }}</ref> Civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, and unified under the banner of the [[Free Syrian Army]], fighting in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacks an organized leadership. The Syrian government characterizes the insurgency as "armed terrorist groups".<ref>{{cite web|author=By the CNN Wire Staff |url=http://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/30852733/detail.html |title=Opposition: 127 Dead As Syrian Forces Target Civilians |publisher=Thedenverchannel.com |date=2012-04-07 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>


According to various sources, including the [[United Nations]], up to 17,700–24,960 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 9,225–9,745 armed combatants from both sides{{cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/ |title=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights |publisher=Syriahr.com|accessdate=2012-07-13}}{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-22/syria-arab-league/52159302/1 |title=Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath' |work=USA Today|date=22 December 2011 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}ine>{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html |title=Syria’s Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border |publisher=Myrtlebeachonline.com |date=2012-04-19 |accessdate=2012-05-17}} and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.{{cite web|url=http://ansamed.ansa.it/ansamed/en/news/sections/politics/2012/03/19/visualizza_new.html_134589467.html |title=Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed |publisher=Ansamed.ansa.it |date=2010-01-03 |accessdate=2012-05-17}} To escape the violence, thousands of [[Syrian refugees]] have fled the country to neighboring [[Jordan]],{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/World/News/Syria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312 |title=Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed |work=News24 |date=12 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}} [[Lebanon]] and [[Turkey]].{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/2012/03/11/148327930/syrian-refugees-may-be-wearing-out-turks-welcome |title=Syrian Refugees May Be Wearing Out Turks' Welcome |work=NPR |date=11 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17635434 |title=Syria crisis: Turkey refugee surge amid escalation fear |work=BBC News|date=6 April 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}} In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned, and there have been reports of widespread torture in the government's prisons.{{cite news |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/breaking-news/unicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria/story-e6freonf-1226265280318 |title=UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria |work=The Courier-Mail |date=8 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |work=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}} International organizations have also accused the government and [[Shabiha]] of using civilians as [[human shields]],{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/human-rights-watch/syria-local-residents-use_b_1380609.html |title=Syria: Local Residents Used as Human Shields |work=Huffington Post|date=26 March 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}{{cite web|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/topic/syria/un-report-accuses-syrian-troops-torturing-and-executing-children-and-using-children |title=UN report accuses Syrian troops of torturing and executing children, and of using children as "human shields" |publisher=Blogs.aljazeera.net |date=2012-06-12 |accessdate=2012-07-08}} and of intentionally targeting civilians.{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/03/20/open-letter-leaders-syrian-opposition|title=Open Letter to the Leaders of the Syrian Opposition Regarding Human Rights Abuses by Armed Opposition Members|date=20 March 2012|accessdate=20 March 2012|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}
According to various sources, including the [[United Nations]], up to 17,700–24,960 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 9,225–9,745 armed combatants from both sides<ref name=SOHR>{{cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/ |title=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights |publisher=Syriahr.com|accessdate=2012-07-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-22/syria-arab-league/52159302/1 |title=Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath' |work=USA Today|date=22 December 2011 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Number as a civil / military"/><ref name=myrtlebeachonline>{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html |title=Syria’s Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border |publisher=Myrtlebeachonline.com |date=2012-04-19 |accessdate=2012-05-17}}</ref> and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.<ref name="almost11,500">{{cite web|url=http://ansamed.ansa.it/ansamed/en/news/sections/politics/2012/03/19/visualizza_new.html_134589467.html |title=Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed |publisher=Ansamed.ansa.it |date=2010-01-03 |accessdate=2012-05-17}}</ref> To escape the violence, thousands of [[Syrian refugees]] have fled the country to neighboring [[Jordan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/World/News/Syria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312 |title=Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed |work=News24 |date=12 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> [[Lebanon]] and [[Turkey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/2012/03/11/148327930/syrian-refugees-may-be-wearing-out-turks-welcome |title=Syrian Refugees May Be Wearing Out Turks' Welcome |work=NPR |date=11 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17635434 |title=Syria crisis: Turkey refugee surge amid escalation fear |work=BBC News|date=6 April 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned, and there have been reports of widespread torture in the government's prisons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/breaking-news/unicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria/story-e6freonf-1226265280318 |title=UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria |work=The Courier-Mail |date=8 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |work=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> International organizations have also accused the government and [[Shabiha]] of using civilians as [[human shields]],<ref name="huffingtonpost1">{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/human-rights-watch/syria-local-residents-use_b_1380609.html |title=Syria: Local Residents Used as Human Shields |work=Huffington Post|date=26 March 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera1">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/topic/syria/un-report-accuses-syrian-troops-torturing-and-executing-children-and-using-children |title=UN report accuses Syrian troops of torturing and executing children, and of using children as "human shields" |publisher=Blogs.aljazeera.net |date=2012-06-12 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref> and of intentionally targeting civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/03/20/open-letter-leaders-syrian-opposition|title=Open Letter to the Leaders of the Syrian Opposition Regarding Human Rights Abuses by Armed Opposition Members|date=20 March 2012|accessdate=20 March 2012|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>


The [[Arab League]], [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters. [[China]] and [[Russia]] have criticized the government,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17450284 Syria's leadership making mistakes, says Russia], BBC, 20 March 2012 but advise against sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention.[http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/08/opinion/lopez-russia-sanctions-cold-war/index.html Russia and China: Sabotaging U.N. with vetoes], CNN, 8 February 2012 However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16561493 | work=BBC News | title=Syria crisis: Qatar calls for Arabs to send in troops | date=14 January 2012}} The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |date=12 Novermber 2011 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=12 November 2011 |first=Neil |last=MacFarquhar}} but sent an [[Arab League Monitors in Syria|observer mission]] in December 2011, as part of its [[Syrian conflict peace proposals|proposal for peaceful resolution]] of the crisis. A further attempt to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of [[Kofi Annan]] as a [[Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria|special envoy]]. [[UN General Secretary|U.N. Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]] had repeatedly stated that the Syrian conflict could emerge into an "all-out civil war".[http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/21/us-syria-un-idUSBRE84K0UC20120521 U.N. worried about Syria's effect on neighboring Lebanon, civil war risk Reuters], Reuters, 21 May 2012
The [[Arab League]], [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters. [[China]] and [[Russia]] have criticized the government,<ref name=russia_criticized_syria>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17450284 Syria's leadership making mistakes, says Russia], BBC, 20 March 2012</ref> but advise against sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/08/opinion/lopez-russia-sanctions-cold-war/index.html Russia and China: Sabotaging U.N. with vetoes], CNN, 8 February 2012</ref> However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16561493 | work=BBC News | title=Syria crisis: Qatar calls for Arabs to send in troops | date=14 January 2012}}</ref> The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |date=12 Novermber 2011 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=12 November 2011 |first=Neil |last=MacFarquhar}}</ref> but sent an [[Arab League Monitors in Syria|observer mission]] in December 2011, as part of its [[Syrian conflict peace proposals|proposal for peaceful resolution]] of the crisis. A further attempt to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of [[Kofi Annan]] as a [[Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria|special envoy]]. [[UN General Secretary|U.N. Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]] had repeatedly stated that the Syrian conflict could emerge into an "all-out civil war".<ref name=bkm_lebanon>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/21/us-syria-un-idUSBRE84K0UC20120521 U.N. worried about Syria's effect on neighboring Lebanon, civil war risk Reuters], Reuters, 21 May 2012</ref>


On 15 July 2012 the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] assessed the Syrian conflict as a "non-international armed conflict" -- the ICRC's legal term for [[civil war]] -- and thus as a result the provisions of [[international humanitarian law]] under the [[Geneva Conventions]] now apply to the conflict.{{cite web|publisher=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/14/us-syria-crisis-icrc-idUSBRE86D09H20120714|title=Exclusive: Red Cross ruling raises questions of Syrian war crimes|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}{{cite web|publisher=Associated Press|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hXxes4Ehagkfsrf7bdiTAXlNNvjQ|title=Red Cross declares Syrian conflict to be civil war|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}{{cite web|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362|title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}{{cite web|publisher=The Guardian|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/10337364|title=Red Cross: Syrian conflict now a civil war|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}} There were reports of "heavy fighing" in Damascus.{{cite web|publisher=Sky News|url=http://news.sky.com/story/960428/heavy-fighting-breaks-out-in-syrian-capital|title=Heavy Fighting Breaks Out In Syrian Capital|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}
On 15 July 2012 the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] assessed the Syrian conflict as a "non-international armed conflict" -- the ICRC's legal term for [[civil war]] -- and thus as a result the provisions of [[international humanitarian law]] under the [[Geneva Conventions]] now apply to the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/14/us-syria-crisis-icrc-idUSBRE86D09H20120714|title=Exclusive: Red Cross ruling raises questions of Syrian war crimes|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Associated Press|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hXxes4Ehagkfsrf7bdiTAXlNNvjQ|title=Red Cross declares Syrian conflict to be civil war|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362|title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=The Guardian|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/10337364|title=Red Cross: Syrian conflict now a civil war|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}</ref> There were reports of "heavy fighing" in Damascus.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Sky News|url=http://news.sky.com/story/960428/heavy-fighting-breaks-out-in-syrian-capital|title=Heavy Fighting Breaks Out In Syrian Capital|date=2012-07-15|accessdate=2012-07-15}}</ref>


==Background==
==Background==
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[[File:Rifaathafezassad.jpg|thumb|left|Former President [[Hafez al-Assad]] (right), and his brother [[Rifaat al-Assad]] (left), who personally supervised the 1982 [[Hama massacre]].|250px]]
[[File:Rifaathafezassad.jpg|thumb|left|Former President [[Hafez al-Assad]] (right), and his brother [[Rifaat al-Assad]] (left), who personally supervised the 1982 [[Hama massacre]].|250px]]


Syria became an independent republic in 1946. In March 1949, democratic rule was overturned by an American supported coup.{{cite book |last=Gendzier |first=Irene L. |title=Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1997 |page=98|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XlxgFtCZF9cC |accessdate=13 February 2012 }} Two more military coups took place that same year. A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 catalyzed a mutiny that saw the army transfer power to civilians. Free elections resulted in [[Shukri al-Quwatli]], who had been the President at the time of the March 1949 coup, to be elected to that post in 1955. A [[United Arab Republic|brief union with Egypt]] in 1958 resulted in Syria's parliamentary system being replaced by a highly centralized presidential system. The union ended in 1961 with Syria's secession. A [[8 March Revolution|1963 military coup d'état]] brought the Ba'ath Party to power, and was followed by another coup in 1966.{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |title=Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |date=25 April 2011 |accessdate=26 April 2011 }} In 1970, then [[Minister of Defence (Syria)|Defense Minister]] Hafez al-Assad [[1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution|seized power]] and declared himself [[President of Syria|President]], a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the Ba'ath Party has remained the sole authority in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by [[referendum]] and do not hold [[multi-party elections]] for the legislature.{{cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/2011/04/13/135383023/protests-in-syria-pose-challenges-for-the-u-s |title=Protests In Syria Pose Challenges for the U.S. |work=NPR |accessdate=15 April 2011 }}
Syria became an independent republic in 1946. In March 1949, democratic rule was overturned by an American supported coup.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gendzier |first=Irene L. |title=Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1997 |page=98|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XlxgFtCZF9cC |accessdate=13 February 2012 }}</ref> Two more military coups took place that same year. A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 catalyzed a mutiny that saw the army transfer power to civilians. Free elections resulted in [[Shukri al-Quwatli]], who had been the President at the time of the March 1949 coup, to be elected to that post in 1955. A [[United Arab Republic|brief union with Egypt]] in 1958 resulted in Syria's parliamentary system being replaced by a highly centralized presidential system. The union ended in 1961 with Syria's secession. A [[8 March Revolution|1963 military coup d'état]] brought the Ba'ath Party to power, and was followed by another coup in 1966.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |title=Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |date=25 April 2011 |accessdate=26 April 2011 }}</ref> In 1970, then [[Minister of Defence (Syria)|Defense Minister]] Hafez al-Assad [[1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution|seized power]] and declared himself [[President of Syria|President]], a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the Ba'ath Party has remained the sole authority in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by [[referendum]] and do not hold [[multi-party elections]] for the legislature.<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/2011/04/13/135383023/protests-in-syria-pose-challenges-for-the-u-s |title=Protests In Syria Pose Challenges for the U.S. |work=NPR |accessdate=15 April 2011 }}</ref>
In 1982, at the height of a six-year [[Islamic uprising in Syria|Islamist insurgency]] throughout the country, Assad conducted a [[scorched earth]] policy against the town of [[Hama]] to quell an uprising by the Sunni [[Islamist]] community, including the [[History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria|Muslim Brotherhood]] and others.{{cite news |last=Shadid |first=Anthony |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/27/world/middleeast/27syria.html |title=International Outcry Grows Over Syria Crackdown |work=The New York Times |date=26 April 2011 |accessdate=3 May 2011 }} This became known as the [[Hama massacre]], which left tens of thousands dead.{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/world/middleeast/27diplomacy.html |title=Chaos in Syria and Jordan Alarms U.S. |last=Landler |first=Mark |date=26 March 2011 |work=The New York Times }}
In 1982, at the height of a six-year [[Islamic uprising in Syria|Islamist insurgency]] throughout the country, Assad conducted a [[scorched earth]] policy against the town of [[Hama]] to quell an uprising by the Sunni [[Islamist]] community, including the [[History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria|Muslim Brotherhood]] and others.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shadid |first=Anthony |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/27/world/middleeast/27syria.html |title=International Outcry Grows Over Syria Crackdown |work=The New York Times |date=26 April 2011 |accessdate=3 May 2011 }}</ref> This became known as the [[Hama massacre]], which left tens of thousands dead.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/world/middleeast/27diplomacy.html |title=Chaos in Syria and Jordan Alarms U.S. |last=Landler |first=Mark |date=26 March 2011 |work=The New York Times }}</ref>


The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the [[1999 Latakia protests]], when violent protests and armed clashes erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother [[Rifaat al-Assad|Rifaat]]. Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.{{cite book |title=European World Year Book 2004 |publisher=Europa Publications |year=2004 |volume=2 |page=4056 }} Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from [[pulmonary fibrosis]]. He was succeeded by his son [[Bashar al-Assad]], who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.
The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the [[1999 Latakia protests]],<ref name=alan/> when violent protests and armed clashes erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother [[Rifaat al-Assad|Rifaat]].<ref name=alan/> Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.<ref>{{cite book |title=European World Year Book 2004 |publisher=Europa Publications |year=2004 |volume=2 |page=4056 }}</ref> Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from [[pulmonary fibrosis]]. He was succeeded by his son [[Bashar al-Assad]], who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.<ref name="autogenerated4"/>


Bashar al-Assad, who speaks fluent [[English language|English]] and has [[Asma al-Assad|a British-born wife]], initially inspired hopes for reform; a "[[Damascus Spring]]" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.{{cite journal |title=No Room to Breathe: State Repression of Human Rights Activism in Syria |journal=Human Rights Watch |date=October 2007 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=8–13 |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/node/10646/section/4 |accessdate=5 July 2011 }} The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or [[Salon (gathering)|salons]] where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as [[Riad Seif]], [[Haitham al-Maleh]], [[Kamal al-Labwani]], [[Riyad al-Turk]] and [[Aref Dalila]] were important in mobilizing the movement.{{cite web |title=Syria Smothering Freedom of Expression: the detention of peaceful critics |url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/007/2002/en/ee9fa6f2-d870-11dd-9df8-936c90684588/mde240072002en.html |publisher=Amnesty International |accessdate=5 July 2011}} The most famous of the forums were the [[Riad Seif Forum]] and the [[Jamal al-Atassi]] Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.{{cite book |last=George |first=Alan |title=Syria:Neither Bread nor Freedom |year=2003 |publisher=Zed Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=1-84277-213-9 |pages=56–58 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dFdbVVcKsSIC }} Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist [[Michel Kilo]] collaborated with other leading opposition figures to launch the [[Damascus Declaration]], which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, [[totalitarian]] and cliquish" and called for democratic reform.{{cite web |title=The Damascus Declaration for Democratic National Change |url=http://www.demdigest.net/damascusdeclaration.html |work=15 October 2005 |accessdate=5 July 2011 }}
Bashar al-Assad, who speaks fluent [[English language|English]] and has [[Asma al-Assad|a British-born wife]], initially inspired hopes for reform; a "[[Damascus Spring]]" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.<ref>{{cite journal |title=No Room to Breathe: State Repression of Human Rights Activism in Syria |journal=Human Rights Watch |date=October 2007 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=8–13 |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/node/10646/section/4 |accessdate=5 July 2011 }}</ref> The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or [[Salon (gathering)|salons]] where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as [[Riad Seif]], [[Haitham al-Maleh]], [[Kamal al-Labwani]], [[Riyad al-Turk]] and [[Aref Dalila]] were important in mobilizing the movement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria Smothering Freedom of Expression: the detention of peaceful critics |url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/007/2002/en/ee9fa6f2-d870-11dd-9df8-936c90684588/mde240072002en.html |publisher=Amnesty International |accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref> The most famous of the forums were the [[Riad Seif Forum]] and the [[Jamal al-Atassi]] Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.<ref name=alan>{{cite book |last=George |first=Alan |title=Syria:Neither Bread nor Freedom |year=2003 |publisher=Zed Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=1-84277-213-9 |pages=56–58 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dFdbVVcKsSIC }}</ref> Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist [[Michel Kilo]] collaborated with other leading opposition figures to launch the [[Damascus Declaration]], which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, [[totalitarian]] and cliquish" and called for democratic reform.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Damascus Declaration for Democratic National Change |url=http://www.demdigest.net/damascusdeclaration.html |work=15 October 2005 |accessdate=5 July 2011 }}</ref>


Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's [[Kurds in Syria|Kurdish]] areas since 2004. That year, [[2004 Al-Qamishli riots|riots broke out]] against the government in the northeastern city of [[Qamishli]]. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and [[Arab]] groups, at least 30 people were killed,{{cite journal |last=Brandon |first=James |title=The PKK and Syria's Kurds |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1014&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=182&no_cache=1 |journal=Terrorism Monitor |publisher=The [[Jamestown Foundation]] |location=Washington, DC |volume=5 |issue=3 |date=21 February 2007 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }} with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people.{{cite web |url=http://www.mideastweb.org/log/archives/00000231.htm |title=Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo |last=Isseroff |first=Ami |work=MideastWeb |date=24 March 2004 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }} Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.
Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's [[Kurds in Syria|Kurdish]] areas since 2004. That year, [[2004 Al-Qamishli riots|riots broke out]] against the government in the northeastern city of [[Qamishli]]. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and [[Arab]] groups, at least 30 people were killed,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brandon |first=James |title=The PKK and Syria's Kurds |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1014&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=182&no_cache=1 |journal=Terrorism Monitor |publisher=The [[Jamestown Foundation]] |location=Washington, DC |volume=5 |issue=3 |date=21 February 2007 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref> with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mideastweb.org/log/archives/00000231.htm |title=Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo |last=Isseroff |first=Ami |work=MideastWeb |date=24 March 2004 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }}</ref> Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.


The [[al-Assad family]] comes from the minority [[Alawi]]te sect, an offshoot of [[Shiite Islam]] that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the [[Syrian people|Syrian]] population.{{cite news |last= Heneghan |first= Tom |date= 23 December 2011 |title= Syria's Alawites are secretive, unorthodox sect |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/23/us-syria-religion-alawites-idUSTRE7BM1J220111223 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 1 July 2012 }} It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/25/world/middleeast/25assad.html |title=Syrian Crisis Tests the Mettle of Its Autocratic Ruler |date=24 April 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |work=The New York Times |first=Robert F. |last=Worth |location=Cairo }} a sect that makes up about three quarters of Syria's population.{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |publisher=US State Department |accessdate=1 January 2012 }} Minority Kurds have also protested and complained.{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=215547 |title=Syria Kurd leader vows to keep up democracy struggle | work=[[The Jerusalem Post]]}} Bashar al-Assad initially asserted that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt.{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2011/02/02/middle-east-protests-syria-egypt/ |title=Is Syria The Next Egypt? |work=Fox News |date=2 February 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }} [[Bouthaina Shaaban]], a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as [[Qatar]]-based [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]] in a sermon in [[Doha]] on 25 March.{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/27/report-12-killed-syrian-port-city |title=US will not intervene in Syria as it has in Libya, says Hillary Clinton |work=The Guardian |date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |location=London}} According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother [[Maher al-Assad]] commands the army's [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|Fourth Armored Division]], and his brother-in-law, [[Assef Shawkat]], is the deputy minister of defense.
The [[al-Assad family]] comes from the minority [[Alawi]]te sect, an offshoot of [[Shiite Islam]] that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the [[Syrian people|Syrian]] population.<ref>{{cite news |last= Heneghan |first= Tom |date= 23 December 2011 |title= Syria's Alawites are secretive, unorthodox sect |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/23/us-syria-religion-alawites-idUSTRE7BM1J220111223 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 1 July 2012 }}</ref> It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/25/world/middleeast/25assad.html |title=Syrian Crisis Tests the Mettle of Its Autocratic Ruler |date=24 April 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |work=The New York Times |first=Robert F. |last=Worth |location=Cairo }}</ref> a sect that makes up about three quarters of Syria's population.<ref name=irfr2006>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |publisher=US State Department |accessdate=1 January 2012 }}</ref> Minority Kurds have also protested and complained.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=215547 |title=Syria Kurd leader vows to keep up democracy struggle | work=[[The Jerusalem Post]]}}</ref> Bashar al-Assad initially asserted that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2011/02/02/middle-east-protests-syria-egypt/ |title=Is Syria The Next Egypt? |work=Fox News |date=2 February 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref> [[Bouthaina Shaaban]], a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as [[Qatar]]-based [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]] in a sermon in [[Doha]] on 25 March.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/27/report-12-killed-syrian-port-city |title=US will not intervene in Syria as it has in Libya, says Hillary Clinton |work=The Guardian |date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |location=London}}</ref> According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother [[Maher al-Assad]] commands the army's [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|Fourth Armored Division]], and his brother-in-law, [[Assef Shawkat]], is the deputy minister of defense.


===Socio-economics===
===Socio-economics===
Socio-economic complaints have been reported, such as a deterioration in the country's [[standard of living]], a reduction of state support for the poor resulting from the gradual transition towards a [[free market]] economy, the erosion of subsidies for basic goods and agriculture, [[free trade]] without suitable support to the local industry, and particularly high youth unemployment rates.{{cite web |url=http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2011/scp310511.html |title=Message to Communists of the World |publisher=[[Syrian Communist Party]] (Unified) |date=31 May 2011 }}{{cite web |url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/ |title=Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions |publisher=Journalist's Resource }}
Socio-economic complaints have been reported, such as a deterioration in the country's [[standard of living]], a reduction of state support for the poor resulting from the gradual transition towards a [[free market]] economy, the erosion of subsidies for basic goods and agriculture, [[free trade]] without suitable support to the local industry, and particularly high youth unemployment rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2011/scp310511.html |title=Message to Communists of the World |publisher=[[Syrian Communist Party]] (Unified) |date=31 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/ |title=Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions |publisher=Journalist's Resource }}</ref>


===Human rights===
===Human rights===
The state of [[human rights in Syria]] has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.[http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 "World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010"], p. 555. The country was under [[state of emergency|emergency rule]] from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention. The Syrian government has justified this by pointing to the fact that the country has been in a continuous state of war with [[Israel]]. After taking power in 1970, Hafez al-Assad quickly purged the government of any political adversaries and asserted his control over all aspects of Syrian society. He developed an elaborate [[cult of personality]] and violently repressed any opposition, most notoriously in the 1982 [[Hama Massacre]]. After his death in 2000 and the succession of his son Bashar al-Assad to the Presidency, it was hoped that the Syrian government would make concessions toward the development of a more liberal society; this period became known as the [[Damascus Spring]]. However, al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from [[Human Rights Watch]] stating that he had failed to improve the state of human rights since taking power ten years prior.{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad |work=The Guardian |first=Ian |last=Black |title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says |date=16 July 2010 |location=London}} All other political parties have remained banned, thereby making Syria a one-party state without free elections.{{cite web |url=http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |publisher=Amnesty International |year=2009 |title=Syria |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}
The state of [[human rights in Syria]] has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.<ref>[http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 "World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010"], p. 555.</ref> The country was under [[state of emergency|emergency rule]] from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.<ref name="AmInt2009"/> The Syrian government has justified this by pointing to the fact that the country has been in a continuous state of war with [[Israel]]. After taking power in 1970, Hafez al-Assad quickly purged the government of any political adversaries and asserted his control over all aspects of Syrian society. He developed an elaborate [[cult of personality]] and violently repressed any opposition, most notoriously in the 1982 [[Hama Massacre]]. After his death in 2000 and the succession of his son Bashar al-Assad to the Presidency, it was hoped that the Syrian government would make concessions toward the development of a more liberal society; this period became known as the [[Damascus Spring]]. However, al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from [[Human Rights Watch]] stating that he had failed to improve the state of human rights since taking power ten years prior.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad |work=The Guardian |first=Ian |last=Black |title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says |date=16 July 2010 |location=London}}</ref> All other political parties have remained banned, thereby making Syria a one-party state without free elections.<ref name="AmInt2009">{{cite web |url=http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |publisher=Amnesty International |year=2009 |title=Syria |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref>


Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled in Syria. The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and [[torture]]d in poor prison conditions.[http://books.google.com/books?id=OZ3a4M_oZccC Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004], [[Human Rights Watch]] 2005. ISBN 1-56432-331-5. While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as [[Amazon.com|Amazon]], [[Facebook]], [[Wikipedia]] and [[YouTube]] were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for [[high speed Internet]], and those sites were allowed.{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |title=Red lines that cannot be crossed |date=24 July 2008 |work=The Economist }} However, a 2007 law requires [[Internet cafe]]s to record all comments that users post on [[online chat]] forums.{{cite web |url=http://en.rsf.org/predator-bashar-al-assad,37213.html |title=Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria |publisher=Reporters Without Borders }}
Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled in Syria.<ref name=HRW/> The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and [[torture]]d in poor prison conditions.<ref name=HRW>[http://books.google.com/books?id=OZ3a4M_oZccC Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004], [[Human Rights Watch]] 2005. ISBN 1-56432-331-5.</ref> While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as [[Amazon.com|Amazon]], [[Facebook]], [[Wikipedia]] and [[YouTube]] were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for [[high speed Internet]], and those sites were allowed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |title=Red lines that cannot be crossed |date=24 July 2008 |work=The Economist }}</ref> However, a 2007 law requires [[Internet cafe]]s to record all comments that users post on [[online chat]] forums.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.rsf.org/predator-bashar-al-assad,37213.html |title=Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria |publisher=Reporters Without Borders }}</ref>


In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in [[2011 Egyptian revolution|Egypt]], [[Tunisian revolution|Tunisia]] and [[2011 Yemeni uprising|Yemen]] indicated a "new era" was coming to the [[Middle East]], and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.{{cite news |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894.html |title=Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=31 January 2011 |accessdate=31 January 2011 }}
In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in [[2011 Egyptian revolution|Egypt]], [[Tunisian revolution|Tunisia]] and [[2011 Yemeni uprising|Yemen]] indicated a "new era" was coming to the [[Middle East]], and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894.html |title=Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=31 January 2011 |accessdate=31 January 2011 }}</ref>


Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector. Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962, and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners" until 2011, when 120,000 out of roughly 200,000 stateless Kurds were granted citizenship on 6 April.{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-04-07/world/syria.kurdish.citizenship_1_kurdish-region-kurdish-identity-stateless-kurds|title=Stateless Kurds in Syria granted citizenship |work=CNN |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} Because the government is dominated by the [[Alawi]]te sect, it has had to make some gestures toward the majority Sunni sects and other minority populations in order to retain power.
Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector.<ref name=HRW/> Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962, and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners" until 2011, when 120,000 out of roughly 200,000 stateless Kurds were granted citizenship on 6 April.<ref name="articles.cnn.com">{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-04-07/world/syria.kurdish.citizenship_1_kurdish-region-kurdish-identity-stateless-kurds|title=Stateless Kurds in Syria granted citizenship |work=CNN |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Because the government is dominated by the [[Alawi]]te sect, it has had to make some gestures toward the majority Sunni sects and other minority populations in order to retain power.


==Timeline==
==Timeline==
{{Main|Timeline of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
{{Main|Timeline of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
===Summary===
===Summary===
[[File:Map of the Syrian Uprising- June (Final).gif|thumb|right|Situation in Syria as of June 2012{{cite web|last=Holliday|first=Joseph|title=Syria's Maturing Insurgency|url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Syrias_MaturingInsurgency_21June2012.pdf|work=Middle East Security Report|publisher=Institute for the Study of War|accessdate=14 July 2012}} (Note: this map does not contain the situation in Syria's eastern parts, due to lack of verified information. However, it has been reported that parts of Deiz al-zor governorate are in rebel control as of June 24, 2012){{cite news|last=Amman|title=Syria shells Deir al-Zor for second day, 20 dead: activists|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/24/us-syria-crisis-east-idUSBRE85N09V20120624|accessdate=15 July 2012|newspaper=Reuters|date=24 June 2012}} |300px]]
[[File:Map of the Syrian Uprising- June (Final).gif|thumb|right|Situation in Syria as of June 2012<ref>{{cite web|last=Holliday|first=Joseph|title=Syria's Maturing Insurgency|url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Syrias_MaturingInsurgency_21June2012.pdf|work=Middle East Security Report|publisher=Institute for the Study of War|accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> (Note: this map does not contain the situation in Syria's eastern parts, due to lack of verified information. However, it has been reported that parts of Deiz al-zor governorate are in rebel control as of June 24, 2012)<ref>{{cite news|last=Amman|title=Syria shells Deir al-Zor for second day, 20 dead: activists|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/24/us-syria-crisis-east-idUSBRE85N09V20120624|accessdate=15 July 2012|newspaper=Reuters|date=24 June 2012}}</ref> |300px]]


When limited protests first began early in 2011, Assad instituted a policy of combining harsh repression with tardy political concessions.{{citation |separator= . |title= Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/countries/SY/Syria_Report_2011-08-17.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 15 September 2011 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}{{rp|8}} For example, in early June 2011, several hundred political detainees were released following the issuance of an amnesty on 31 May 2011, but at the same time Syrian security forces escalated their response to the demonstrations by deploying military forces to areas where protest was most intense.{{citation |separator= . |title= Preliminary report of the High Commissioner on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.CRP.1_Englishonly.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 14 June 2011 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}{{rp|4}} This violence led to a dramatic expansion in both the numbers of people protesting and to an extension of the issues they protested about.{{rp|3}} Violence began to increase dramatically after March 2012, as Assad moved against opposition fighters who were becoming better armed and organised thanks to substantial external assistance.{{citation |separator= . |last= |date= 24 May 2012 |title= Periodic Update of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/SpecialSession/CISyria/PeriodicUpdateCISyria.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }} By June 2012, deaths of Syrian armed forces had increased appreciably; nevertheless, the conflict retained a protracted outlook.{{cite web |last= Enders |first= David |date= 1 June 2012 |title= Syrian military casualties rose in May while death toll overall dropped |url= http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/06/01/150925/civilian-deaths-down-army-casualties.html |publisher= McClatchy Newspapers |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }}{{cite web |last= Peel |first= Michael |date= 24 June 2012 |title= Rising deaths take toll on Assad military |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1e116c4c-be1c-11e1-83ad-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}
When limited protests first began early in 2011, Assad instituted a policy of combining harsh repression with tardy political concessions.<ref name = "OHCHR Sep11">{{citation |separator= . |title= Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/countries/SY/Syria_Report_2011-08-17.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 15 September 2011 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref>{{rp|8}} For example, in early June 2011, several hundred political detainees were released following the issuance of an amnesty on 31 May 2011, but at the same time Syrian security forces escalated their response to the demonstrations by deploying military forces to areas where protest was most intense.<ref name = "UN preliminary">{{citation |separator= . |title= Preliminary report of the High Commissioner on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.CRP.1_Englishonly.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 14 June 2011 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref>{{rp|4}} This violence led to a dramatic expansion in both the numbers of people protesting and to an extension of the issues they protested about.<ref name = "UN preliminary"/>{{rp|3}} Violence began to increase dramatically after March 2012, as Assad moved against opposition fighters who were becoming better armed and organised thanks to substantial external assistance.<ref name = "UN update">{{citation |separator= . |last= |date= 24 May 2012 |title= Periodic Update of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/SpecialSession/CISyria/PeriodicUpdateCISyria.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }}</ref> By June 2012, deaths of Syrian armed forces had increased appreciably; nevertheless, the conflict retained a protracted outlook.<ref name = "McClatchy soldiers">{{cite web |last= Enders |first= David |date= 1 June 2012 |title= Syrian military casualties rose in May while death toll overall dropped |url= http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/06/01/150925/civilian-deaths-down-army-casualties.html |publisher= McClatchy Newspapers |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }}</ref><ref name = "FT soldiers">{{cite web |last= Peel |first= Michael |date= 24 June 2012 |title= Rising deaths take toll on Assad military |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1e116c4c-be1c-11e1-83ad-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref>


===Protests===
===Protests===
[[File:Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg|thumb|left||The former [[flag of Syria]] has been used as an opposition flag.{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j-SO9ZusQrcONguLMpZ0o451zRGw?docId=CNG.871d6ceaf93465b9db0644b930cabf59.701|title=International unity needed on Syria: Clinton |date=3 July 2011 |agency=Agence France-Presse|work=Google News|accessdate=30 April 2012|location=Washington}}]]
[[File:Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg|thumb|left||The former [[flag of Syria]] has been used as an opposition flag.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j-SO9ZusQrcONguLMpZ0o451zRGw?docId=CNG.871d6ceaf93465b9db0644b930cabf59.701|title=International unity needed on Syria: Clinton |date=3 July 2011 |agency=Agence France-Presse|work=Google News|accessdate=30 April 2012|location=Washington}}</ref>]]
The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January 2011,{{cite web |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h36T5QlbV8w |title=أبرز محطات الثورة السورية خلال الأيام الماضية.wmv |date=24 April 2011 |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=2 November 2011 }} when Hasan Ali Akleh from [[Al-Hasakah]] poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian [[Mohamed Bouazizi]] had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the [[Syrian government]]".{{cite web |url=http://www.free-syria.com/loadarticle.php?articleid=37797 |title=Information on the death of a young man who burned himself in Al Hasakah |publisher=free-syria.com |accessdate=30 January 2011}}{{cite news |url=http://www.metransparent.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=12661&lang=ar |title=Syrian suicider is "Hasan Ali Akleh". Damascus has banned a demonstration in support of Egypt |work=Middle East Transparent |accessdate=30 January 2011 }} Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in [[Ar-Raqqah]] to protest the killing of two soldiers of [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] descent.{{cite web |url=http://free-syria.com/loadarticle.php?articleid=37803 |title=Demonstration in Ar-Raqqa, Syria |publisher=free-syria.com |accessdate=30 January 2011 }}
The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January 2011,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h36T5QlbV8w |title=أبرز محطات الثورة السورية خلال الأيام الماضية.wmv |date=24 April 2011 |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=2 November 2011 }}</ref> when Hasan Ali Akleh from [[Al-Hasakah]] poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian [[Mohamed Bouazizi]] had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the [[Syrian government]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.free-syria.com/loadarticle.php?articleid=37797 |title=Information on the death of a young man who burned himself in Al Hasakah |publisher=free-syria.com |accessdate=30 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.metransparent.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=12661&lang=ar |title=Syrian suicider is "Hasan Ali Akleh". Damascus has banned a demonstration in support of Egypt |work=Middle East Transparent |accessdate=30 January 2011 }}</ref> Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in [[Ar-Raqqah]] to protest the killing of two soldiers of [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] descent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://free-syria.com/loadarticle.php?articleid=37803 |title=Demonstration in Ar-Raqqa, Syria |publisher=free-syria.com |accessdate=30 January 2011 }}</ref>


On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4 to 5 February on social media websites Facebook and [[Twitter]]; however, protests failed to materialize within the country itself.{{cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41400687/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/ |title='Day of Rage' Protest Urged in Syria |work=[[MSNBC]] |accessdate=3 February 2011 }} Hundreds marched in Al-Hasakah, but Syrian security forces dispersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators.{{cite web |url=http://free-syria.com/loadarticle.php?articleid=37849 |title=Demonstration on the day of anger in Hasaka and Syrian authorities arrested dozens |publisher=free-syria.com |accessdate=15 February 2011 }} [[Al Jazeera]] labeled Syria a "kingdom of silence", concluding that protests would not succeed due to the popularity of al-Assad and concerns over the prospects of [[insurgency]] like that seen in neighboring [[Iraq]].{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/02/201129103121562395.html |title=Syria: 'A kingdom of silence' |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=12 February 2011 }} A protest in late February at the [[Libya]]n Embassy in [[Damascus]] to demonstrate against the government of [[Muammar Gaddafi]], facing his own [[Libyan civil war|major protests]] in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from Syrian police moving to disperse the demonstration against a friendly regime.{{Cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/24/syria-crackdown-protest-arrests-beatings |title=Syria clamps down on dissent with beatings and arrests |work=The Guardian |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=24 February 2011 |first=Lauren |last=Williams |location=London}}
On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4 to 5 February on social media websites Facebook and [[Twitter]]; however, protests failed to materialize within the country itself.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41400687/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/ |title='Day of Rage' Protest Urged in Syria |work=[[MSNBC]] |accessdate=3 February 2011 }}</ref> Hundreds marched in Al-Hasakah, but Syrian security forces dispersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://free-syria.com/loadarticle.php?articleid=37849 |title=Demonstration on the day of anger in Hasaka and Syrian authorities arrested dozens |publisher=free-syria.com |accessdate=15 February 2011 }}</ref> [[Al Jazeera]] labeled Syria a "kingdom of silence", concluding that protests would not succeed due to the popularity of al-Assad and concerns over the prospects of [[insurgency]] like that seen in neighboring [[Iraq]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/02/201129103121562395.html |title=Syria: 'A kingdom of silence' |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=12 February 2011 }}</ref> A protest in late February at the [[Libya]]n Embassy in [[Damascus]] to demonstrate against the government of [[Muammar Gaddafi]], facing his own [[Libyan civil war|major protests]] in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from Syrian police moving to disperse the demonstration against a friendly regime.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/24/syria-crackdown-protest-arrests-beatings |title=Syria clamps down on dissent with beatings and arrests |work=The Guardian |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=24 February 2011 |first=Lauren |last=Williams |location=London}}</ref>


[[File:Anti Assad graffiti on walls march 2011 syria.jpg|thumb|right|"Down with Bashar al-Assad". Government-critical graffiti was an early sign of the uprising.]]
[[File:Anti Assad graffiti on walls march 2011 syria.jpg|thumb|right|"Down with Bashar al-Assad". Government-critical graffiti was an early sign of the uprising.]]


On 6 March, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine ran a story which analysed the state of the Syrian youth and why, despite some individuals being extremely critical of the government, it would be unlikely for this anger to develop into a full-fledged uprising.{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2057454,00.html |title=The Youth of Syria: The Rebels Are on Pause |work=Time |date=6 March 2011 |accessdate=6 March 2011 }} Ribal al-Assad said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next [[Domino theory|domino]] in the burgeoning Arab Spring.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/03/20113482455647372.html |title=Is Syria the next domino? |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=6 March 2011 }} Indeed, on 15 March, the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria.{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12757394 |title= Middle East unrest: Syria arrests Damascus protesters |work=BBC News |accessdate=19 April 2011 |date=16 March 2011 }} Increasingly, the city of [[Daraa]] became the focal point for the growing uprising. This city has been straining under the influx of internal refugees who were forced to leave their northeastern lands due to a drought which was exacerbated by the government's lack of provision.{{cite news|work=n+1|author=Michael Gunning|date=26 August 2011|url=http://nplusonemag.com/background-to-a-revolution|title=Background to a Revolution}} Over 100,000 people reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed.{{Cite news |title=At Least 23 Said Killed as Protesters in Syria Clash with Security Forces |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=25 March 2011 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/international/at-least-23-said-killed-as-protesters-in-syria-clash-with-security-forces-1.351815 |accessdate=26 March 2011 }}{{dead link|date=July 2012}} Protests also spread to other Syrian cities, including [[Homs]], Hama, [[Baniyas]], [[Jassem]], [[Aleppo]], Damascus and [[Latakia]]. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead.{{cite news |title=25 March 2011 Syrian Protests |work=NOW Lebanon |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=25 March 2011 |url=http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=254495 |accessdate=25 March 2011 }} Late in the month, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protesters, when al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners.{{cite news |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/syria/index.html |title=Syria |work=The New York Times |accessdate=10 April 2011 |first=Anthony |last=Shadid }} An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted, and Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister [[Muhammad Naji al-Otari]].{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html |title=Syrian cabinet resigns amid unrest |work=Al Jazeera |date=29 March 2011 |accessdate=15 April 2011 }} Assad denied the emergency law would be lifted at the end of March, however.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011330135615434966.html |title=Syria's Assad warns of 'conspiracy' |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 March 2011 |accessdate=10 April 2011 }}
On 6 March, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine ran a story which analysed the state of the Syrian youth and why, despite some individuals being extremely critical of the government, it would be unlikely for this anger to develop into a full-fledged uprising.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2057454,00.html |title=The Youth of Syria: The Rebels Are on Pause |work=Time |date=6 March 2011 |accessdate=6 March 2011 }}</ref> Ribal al-Assad said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next [[Domino theory|domino]] in the burgeoning Arab Spring.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/03/20113482455647372.html |title=Is Syria the next domino? |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=6 March 2011 }}</ref> Indeed, on 15 March, the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12757394 |title= Middle East unrest: Syria arrests Damascus protesters |work=BBC News |accessdate=19 April 2011 |date=16 March 2011 }}</ref> Increasingly, the city of [[Daraa]] became the focal point for the growing uprising. This city has been straining under the influx of internal refugees who were forced to leave their northeastern lands due to a drought which was exacerbated by the government's lack of provision.<ref>{{cite news|work=n+1|author=Michael Gunning|date=26 August 2011|url=http://nplusonemag.com/background-to-a-revolution|title=Background to a Revolution}}</ref> Over 100,000 people reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed.<ref>{{Cite news |title=At Least 23 Said Killed as Protesters in Syria Clash with Security Forces |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=25 March 2011 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/international/at-least-23-said-killed-as-protesters-in-syria-clash-with-security-forces-1.351815 |accessdate=26 March 2011 }}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref> Protests also spread to other Syrian cities, including [[Homs]], Hama, [[Baniyas]], [[Jassem]], [[Aleppo]], Damascus and [[Latakia]]. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead.<ref>{{cite news |title=25 March 2011 Syrian Protests |work=NOW Lebanon |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=25 March 2011 |url=http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=254495 |accessdate=25 March 2011 }}</ref> Late in the month, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protesters, when al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/syria/index.html |title=Syria |work=The New York Times |accessdate=10 April 2011 |first=Anthony |last=Shadid }}</ref> An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted,<ref name=AJE270311/> and Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister [[Muhammad Naji al-Otari]].<ref name=AJSyriaGovQuit>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html |title=Syrian cabinet resigns amid unrest |work=Al Jazeera |date=29 March 2011 |accessdate=15 April 2011 }}</ref> Assad denied the emergency law would be lifted at the end of March, however.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011330135615434966.html |title=Syria's Assad warns of 'conspiracy' |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 March 2011 |accessdate=10 April 2011 }}</ref>


In April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, leading to at least 10 deaths.{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4050879,00.html |title=At least 10 killed in Syria |work=Ynetnews |date=1 April 2011 |accessdate=10 April 2011 }} Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed.{{cite news |title=Syria: government troops in violent reaction to fresh protests |date=8 April 2011 |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/8438932/Syria-government-troops-in-violent-reaction-to-fresh-protests.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Richard |last=Spencer |location=London}} Tens of thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction did not prevent widespread protests in many Syrian cities.{{cite news |title=Thousands in Syria march toward Damascus demanding further reforms |agency=Associated Press |work=Haaretz |date=15 April 2011 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/international/thousands-in-syria-march-toward-damascus-demanding-further-reforms-1.356207 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2012}} Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli and Homs.{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled |title=Almost 90 dead in Syria's bloodiest day of unrest |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/22/us-syria-protests-idUSTRE73L1SJ20110422 |accessdate=22 April 2011 |agency=Reuters |date=22 April 2011 }}{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/201142203815205988.html |title=Syrians hold 'Great Friday' protests |work=Al Jazeera |date=22 April 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 }} There were also protests in Douma and Harasta, suburbs of Damascus. Firing throughout the country resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloodiest day so far. Tanks and soldiers entered Daraa and Douma and the border with [[Jordan]] was also closed.{{cite news |title=Syria sends tanks into Deraa where uprising began |first1=Khaled Yacoub |last1=Oweis |first2=Suleiman |last2=al-Khalidi |agency=Reuters |date=25 April 2011 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/25/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110425 |accessdate=25 April 2011 }} According to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa.{{cite news |title=Toll rises as army storms Syrian towns |work=Al Jazeera |date=25 April 2011 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011425142513343584.html |accessdate=26 April 2011 }} [[Al Jazeera]] reported that some soldiers appeared to have been shot by their own comrades-in-arms after refusing orders to fire on protesters.{{cite news |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/live/middle-east/syria-live-blog-april-28 |work=Al Jazeera |date=28 April 2011 |accessdate=28 April 2011 |title=Syria Live Blog – 28 April }}{{dead link|date=July 2012}} On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions against the Syrian government.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/201142993412242172.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=29 April 2011 |accessdate=30 April 2011 |title=Scores killed on Syria's 'day of rage' }}
In April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, leading to at least 10 deaths.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4050879,00.html |title=At least 10 killed in Syria |work=Ynetnews |date=1 April 2011 |accessdate=10 April 2011 }}</ref> Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria: government troops in violent reaction to fresh protests |date=8 April 2011 |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/8438932/Syria-government-troops-in-violent-reaction-to-fresh-protests.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Richard |last=Spencer |location=London}}</ref> Tens of thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction did not prevent widespread protests in many Syrian cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thousands in Syria march toward Damascus demanding further reforms |agency=Associated Press |work=Haaretz |date=15 April 2011 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/international/thousands-in-syria-march-toward-damascus-demanding-further-reforms-1.356207 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref> Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli and Homs.<ref name=Reuters220411>{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled |title=Almost 90 dead in Syria's bloodiest day of unrest |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/22/us-syria-protests-idUSTRE73L1SJ20110422 |accessdate=22 April 2011 |agency=Reuters |date=22 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/201142203815205988.html |title=Syrians hold 'Great Friday' protests |work=Al Jazeera |date=22 April 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 }}</ref> There were also protests in Douma and Harasta, suburbs of Damascus. Firing throughout the country resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloodiest day so far.<ref name=Reuters220411/> Tanks and soldiers entered Daraa and Douma and the border with [[Jordan]] was also closed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria sends tanks into Deraa where uprising began |first1=Khaled Yacoub |last1=Oweis |first2=Suleiman |last2=al-Khalidi |agency=Reuters |date=25 April 2011 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/25/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110425 |accessdate=25 April 2011 }}</ref> According to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa.<ref>{{cite news |title=Toll rises as army storms Syrian towns |work=Al Jazeera |date=25 April 2011 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011425142513343584.html |accessdate=26 April 2011 }}</ref> [[Al Jazeera]] reported that some soldiers appeared to have been shot by their own comrades-in-arms after refusing orders to fire on protesters.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/live/middle-east/syria-live-blog-april-28 |work=Al Jazeera |date=28 April 2011 |accessdate=28 April 2011 |title=Syria Live Blog – 28 April }}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref> On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions against the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/201142993412242172.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=29 April 2011 |accessdate=30 April 2011 |title=Scores killed on Syria's 'day of rage' }}</ref>


===Protests and military sieges===
===Protests and military sieges===
[[image:VOA Arrott - A View of Syria, Under Government Crackdown 07.jpg|thumb|[[Riot police]] in [[Damascus]]]]
[[image:VOA Arrott - A View of Syria, Under Government Crackdown 07.jpg|thumb|[[Riot police]] in [[Damascus]]]]
As protests continued, the Syrian government used [[tank]]s and snipers to force people off the streets. Water and electricity were shut off in the city of [[Siege of Daraa|Daraa]], and security forces began confiscating flour and food.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114309234489989.html |title=Fresh Violence Hits Syrian Town |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=3 May 2011 }} A similar situation was reported in [[Siege of Homs|Homs]].{{cite news |url=http://news.sky.com/home/world-news/article/15985647 |title=Video, Syria: Troops Storm Damascus Suburb and Arrest Hundreds of People |work=Sky News |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=8 May 2011 }} In May, the Syrian army entered the cities of [[Siege of Baniyas|Baniyas]], Hama, [[Siege of Homs|Homs]], [[Siege of Talkalakh|Talkalakh]], Latakia, the [[Al-Midan]] and [[Douma, Syria|Douma]] districts of Damascus, and several other towns.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/05/20115765059910917.html |title=Syrian Tanks Enter 'Protest Hub' Baniyas |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=8 May 2011 }}{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13343540 |title= Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama' |work=BBC News |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}
As protests continued, the Syrian government used [[tank]]s and snipers to force people off the streets. Water and electricity were shut off in the city of [[Siege of Daraa|Daraa]], and security forces began confiscating flour and food.<ref name="freshviolence">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114309234489989.html |title=Fresh Violence Hits Syrian Town |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=3 May 2011 }}</ref> A similar situation was reported in [[Siege of Homs|Homs]].<ref name="News.sky.com">{{cite news |url=http://news.sky.com/home/world-news/article/15985647 |title=Video, Syria: Troops Storm Damascus Suburb and Arrest Hundreds of People |work=Sky News |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=8 May 2011 }}</ref> In May, the Syrian army entered the cities of [[Siege of Baniyas|Baniyas]], Hama, [[Siege of Homs|Homs]], [[Siege of Talkalakh|Talkalakh]], Latakia, the [[Al-Midan]] and [[Douma, Syria|Douma]] districts of Damascus, and several other towns.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/05/20115765059910917.html |title=Syrian Tanks Enter 'Protest Hub' Baniyas |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=8 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13343540 |title= Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama' |work=BBC News |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref>


Baniyas was [[Siege of Baniyas|besieged]] in early May, and divided into zones of ''de facto'' control, with protesters largely controlling the south and security forces enforcing the laws of the government in the north. Major demonstrations saw nearly 20 deaths on 6 May, and the government said 11 soldiers were shot by "armed groups" on the same day.{{cite web |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90854/7372876.html |title=Syria mourns 11 soldiers killed by "armed groups": SANA |work=People's Daily |date=8 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 }} The violent suppression of protests in Homs, Daraa, and other rebellious cities continued throughout the month.{{cite news |work=[[MSNBC]] |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42947180/ns/world_news-mideast/n_africa/t/child-reported-killed-syrian-forces-crack-down/ |date=8 May 2011 |accessdate=9 May 2011 |title=Child Reported Killed as Syrian Forces Crack Down }}{{cite news |work=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/05/16/syria.bodies.found/index.html |date=16 May 2011 |accessdate=17 May 2011 |title=Shallow grave yields several bodies in Syrian city marked by unrest }} A 17 May report of claims by refugees coming from Telkalakh on the Lebanese border indicated that sectarian attacks may have been occurring. Sunni refugees said that uniformed [[Alawite]] [[Shabiha]] militiamen were killing [[Sunni]]s in the town of Telkalakh. The reporter also stated that according to arms dealers, "sales of black market weapons in [[Lebanon]] have skyrocketed in recent weeks driven almost entirely by demand in Syria."Blanford, Nicholas; [http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0517/Syrian-refugees-describe-gangs-fomenting-sectarian-strife ''Syrian refugees describe gangs fomenting sectarian strife''], Christian Science Monitor, 17 May 2011
Baniyas was [[Siege of Baniyas|besieged]] in early May, and divided into zones of ''de facto'' control, with protesters largely controlling the south and security forces enforcing the laws of the government in the north. Major demonstrations saw nearly 20 deaths on 6 May, and the government said 11 soldiers were shot by "armed groups" on the same day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90854/7372876.html |title=Syria mourns 11 soldiers killed by "armed groups": SANA |work=People's Daily |date=8 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 }}</ref> The violent suppression of protests in Homs, Daraa, and other rebellious cities continued throughout the month.<ref>{{cite news |work=[[MSNBC]] |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42947180/ns/world_news-mideast/n_africa/t/child-reported-killed-syrian-forces-crack-down/ |date=8 May 2011 |accessdate=9 May 2011 |title=Child Reported Killed as Syrian Forces Crack Down }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/05/16/syria.bodies.found/index.html |date=16 May 2011 |accessdate=17 May 2011 |title=Shallow grave yields several bodies in Syrian city marked by unrest }}</ref> A 17 May report of claims by refugees coming from Telkalakh on the Lebanese border indicated that sectarian attacks may have been occurring. Sunni refugees said that uniformed [[Alawite]] [[Shabiha]] militiamen were killing [[Sunni]]s in the town of Telkalakh. The reporter also stated that according to arms dealers, "sales of black market weapons in [[Lebanon]] have skyrocketed in recent weeks driven almost entirely by demand in Syria."<ref>Blanford, Nicholas; [http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0517/Syrian-refugees-describe-gangs-fomenting-sectarian-strife ''Syrian refugees describe gangs fomenting sectarian strife''], Christian Science Monitor, 17 May 2011</ref>


Early June, the Syrian government said more than 20 Syrian demonstrators were shot dead at the [[Golan Heights]] by [[Israel]]i forces, when trying to cross the cease-fire line during [[Naksa Day]] [[2011 Israeli border demonstrations|demonstrations]]. This was perceived by Israelis as a way for the Syrian government to divert attention from the Syrian unrest by allowing demonstrators to reach all the way to the [[Golan Heights]].{{cite news |url=http://news.sky.com/home/world-news/article/16005791 |title='Israeli Forces Kill 23 Protesters' On Border |work=Sky News |accessdate=1 February 2012 |date=6 June 2011 }} The army also [[Siege of Jisr al-Shughur|besieged]] the northern cities of [[Jisr ash-Shugur]]{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201161064328691559.html |title=Syrian army starts crackdown in northern town |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=12 June 2011 }} and [[Maarat al-Numaan]] near the [[Turkey|Turkish]] border.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011610162535580409.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=10 June 2011 |accessdate=11 June 2011 |title='Many killed' amid fresh Syria protests }} The Syrian Army claimed the towns were the site of mass graves of Syrian security personnel killed during the uprising and justified the attacks as operations to rid the region of "armed gangs",{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/06/15/Syrian-army-reports-finding-mass-grave/UPI-20861308154987 |title=Syrian army reports finding mass grave |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=17 June 2011 |agency=United Press International }} though local residents claimed the dead Syrian troops and officers were executed for refusing to fire on protesters.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011685648824776.html |title=European powers step up pressure on Syria |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 June 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 }} The [[siege of Daraa|siege]] of Daraa continued in the meantime, with a French journalist reporting [[famine]]-like conditions in the town.{{cite news |last=Clanet |first=Christian |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2076778,00.html |title=A French Journalist in Dara'a, Syria's 'Ghetto of Death' |work=Time |date=10 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }} On 20 June, in a speech lasting nearly an hour, in response to the demands of protesters and foreign pressure, Assad promised a "national dialogue" involving movement toward reform, new parliamentary elections, and greater freedoms. He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on a small number of "saboteurs". The speech received mixed reactions domestically and abroad and was largely dismissed by protesters.{{cite news |url=http://www.euronews.net/2011/06/20/assad-promises-national-dialogue/ |title=Syrians protest despite Assad promises on reform |work=Euro News |date=20 June 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }} On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in [[Aleppo]] (Syria's second largest city) which were labeled the "Aleppo volcano".{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13977689 |title=Syria unrest: Protests in Aleppo as troops comb border |work=BBC News |date=30 June 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}
Early June, the Syrian government said more than 20 Syrian demonstrators were shot dead at the [[Golan Heights]] by [[Israel]]i forces, when trying to cross the cease-fire line during [[Naksa Day]] [[2011 Israeli border demonstrations|demonstrations]]. This was perceived by Israelis as a way for the Syrian government to divert attention from the Syrian unrest by allowing demonstrators to reach all the way to the [[Golan Heights]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.sky.com/home/world-news/article/16005791 |title='Israeli Forces Kill 23 Protesters' On Border |work=Sky News |accessdate=1 February 2012 |date=6 June 2011 }}</ref> The army also [[Siege of Jisr al-Shughur|besieged]] the northern cities of [[Jisr ash-Shugur]]<ref name="crackdown">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201161064328691559.html |title=Syrian army starts crackdown in northern town |work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=12 June 2011 }}</ref> and [[Maarat al-Numaan]] near the [[Turkey|Turkish]] border.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011610162535580409.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=10 June 2011 |accessdate=11 June 2011 |title='Many killed' amid fresh Syria protests }}</ref> The Syrian Army claimed the towns were the site of mass graves of Syrian security personnel killed during the uprising and justified the attacks as operations to rid the region of "armed gangs",<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/06/15/Syrian-army-reports-finding-mass-grave/UPI-20861308154987 |title=Syrian army reports finding mass grave |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=17 June 2011 |agency=United Press International }}</ref> though local residents claimed the dead Syrian troops and officers were executed for refusing to fire on protesters.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011685648824776.html |title=European powers step up pressure on Syria |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 June 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 }}</ref> The [[siege of Daraa|siege]] of Daraa continued in the meantime, with a French journalist reporting [[famine]]-like conditions in the town.<ref>{{cite news |last=Clanet |first=Christian |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2076778,00.html |title=A French Journalist in Dara'a, Syria's 'Ghetto of Death' |work=Time |date=10 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }}</ref> On 20 June, in a speech lasting nearly an hour, in response to the demands of protesters and foreign pressure, Assad promised a "national dialogue" involving movement toward reform, new parliamentary elections, and greater freedoms. He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on a small number of "saboteurs". The speech received mixed reactions domestically and abroad and was largely dismissed by protesters.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.euronews.net/2011/06/20/assad-promises-national-dialogue/ |title=Syrians protest despite Assad promises on reform |work=Euro News |date=20 June 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref> On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in [[Aleppo]] (Syria's second largest city) which were labeled the "Aleppo volcano".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13977689 |title=Syria unrest: Protests in Aleppo as troops comb border |work=BBC News |date=30 June 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref>


In mid-July, pro-government protesters attacked the US and French embassies in Damascus, responding to those countries' support for the opposition.{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/07/11/501364/main20078381.shtml |work=CBS News |title=Protesters attack U.S. Embassy in Damascus }} Attacks on protests continued throughout July, with government forces repeatedly firing at protesters and employing tanks against demonstrations, as well as conducting arrests. On 31 July, a [[Siege of Hama (2011)|siege of Hama]] escalated during a so-called "Ramadan Massacre", in which at least 136 people were killed and hundreds wounded when Syrian forces attacked demonstrators across the country, employing tanks, artillery and snipers. Most of the deaths occurred in Hama.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/07/201173143432348733.html |title='Scores dead' as Syrian tanks storm Hama city |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 July 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}
In mid-July, pro-government protesters attacked the US and French embassies in Damascus, responding to those countries' support for the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/07/11/501364/main20078381.shtml |work=CBS News |title=Protesters attack U.S. Embassy in Damascus }}</ref> Attacks on protests continued throughout July, with government forces repeatedly firing at protesters and employing tanks against demonstrations, as well as conducting arrests. On 31 July, a [[Siege of Hama (2011)|siege of Hama]] escalated during a so-called "Ramadan Massacre", in which at least 136 people were killed and hundreds wounded when Syrian forces attacked demonstrators across the country, employing tanks, artillery and snipers. Most of the deaths occurred in Hama.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/07/201173143432348733.html |title='Scores dead' as Syrian tanks storm Hama city |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 July 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref>


Syrian forces continued to bombard Hama in early August, along with attacks in other cities and towns.{{cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/UN-Mulls-Syrian-Violence-as-Government-Crackdown-Continues-126582458.html |title=UN Debates Resolution Condemning Syria As Unrest Continues |work=Voice of America |date=2 August 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} On the first full weekend of [[Ramadan]], the [[Arab League]] and several [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] member states led by [[Saudi Arabia]] broke their silence on the events in Syria to condemn the government's response.{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Syrias-Assad-Replaces-Defense-Minister-Arab-Nations-Recall-Envoy-127252238.html |work=Voice of America |date=8 August 2011 |accessdate=8 August 2011 |title=Syria's Assad Replaces Defense Minister, Arab Nations Recall Envoy }} Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests.
Syrian forces continued to bombard Hama in early August, along with attacks in other cities and towns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/UN-Mulls-Syrian-Violence-as-Government-Crackdown-Continues-126582458.html |title=UN Debates Resolution Condemning Syria As Unrest Continues |work=Voice of America |date=2 August 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> On the first full weekend of [[Ramadan]], the [[Arab League]] and several [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] member states led by [[Saudi Arabia]] broke their silence on the events in Syria to condemn the government's response.<ref name="voa8-8">{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Syrias-Assad-Replaces-Defense-Minister-Arab-Nations-Recall-Envoy-127252238.html |work=Voice of America |date=8 August 2011 |accessdate=8 August 2011 |title=Syria's Assad Replaces Defense Minister, Arab Nations Recall Envoy }}</ref> Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests.


On 14 August, the [[Syrian Navy]] became involved in the military crackdown. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods. Up to 28 people were killed. Eight more civilians were killed elsewhere in the country.{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/14/us-syria-idUSTRE77D0LP20110814 |agency=Reuters |date=14 August 2011 |accessdate=14 August 2011 |title=Tank, navy attack on Syria's Latakia kills 26-witnesses |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |location=Amman }}
On 14 August, the [[Syrian Navy]] became involved in the military crackdown. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods. Up to 28 people were killed. Eight more civilians were killed elsewhere in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/14/us-syria-idUSTRE77D0LP20110814 |agency=Reuters |date=14 August 2011 |accessdate=14 August 2011 |title=Tank, navy attack on Syria's Latakia kills 26-witnesses |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |location=Amman }}</ref>


Throughout the next few days, the [[Siege of Latakia]] dragged on, with government forces and shabiha militia continuing to fire on civilians in the city, as well as throughout the country over the following days. On 30 August, during the first day of [[Eid ul-Fitr]], thousands of people demonstrated in Homs, Daraa, and suburbs of Damascus. Nine people were killed when security forces fired on these demonstrations. Eid celebrations in the country were reportedly muted, with people trying to visit the graves of their loved ones being killed.{{cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/08/30/164705.html |title=Syrian forces kill seven protesters as Muslims celebrate first day of Eid |work=Al Arabiya |date=30 August 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }} Protests continued into the following months, with security forces and militia continuing to fire at demonstrators and raid towns and neighborhoods across the country.
Throughout the next few days, the [[Siege of Latakia]] dragged on, with government forces and shabiha militia continuing to fire on civilians in the city, as well as throughout the country over the following days. On 30 August, during the first day of [[Eid ul-Fitr]], thousands of people demonstrated in Homs, Daraa, and suburbs of Damascus. Nine people were killed when security forces fired on these demonstrations. Eid celebrations in the country were reportedly muted, with people trying to visit the graves of their loved ones being killed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/08/30/164705.html |title=Syrian forces kill seven protesters as Muslims celebrate first day of Eid |work=Al Arabiya |date=30 August 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref> Protests continued into the following months, with security forces and militia continuing to fire at demonstrators and raid towns and neighborhoods across the country.


On 7 October, prominent Kurdish rights activist Mishaal al-Tammo was assassinated when masked gunmen burst into his flat, with the Syrian government blamed for his death. At least 20 other civilians were also killed during crackdowns on demonstrations across the country. The next day, more than 50,000 mourners marched in Al-Qamishli to mark Tammo's funeral, and at least 14 were killed when security forces fired on them.{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15227172 |title=Syria security forces 'open fire at Kurd's funeral' |date=8 October 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 |work=BBC News }}
On 7 October, prominent Kurdish rights activist Mishaal al-Tammo was assassinated when masked gunmen burst into his flat, with the Syrian government blamed for his death. At least 20 other civilians were also killed during crackdowns on demonstrations across the country. The next day, more than 50,000 mourners marched in Al-Qamishli to mark Tammo's funeral, and at least 14 were killed when security forces fired on them.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15227172 |title=Syria security forces 'open fire at Kurd's funeral' |date=8 October 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 |work=BBC News }}</ref>


In August, ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' reported that protesters enraged at Hezbollah's support for Assad's government burned Hezbollah flags and images of its leader [[Hassan Nasrallah]] in several places in Syria.{{cite web|last=Navon |first=Emmanuel |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=233279 |title=Syria uprising stirs old divisions in neighboring Lebanon |work=Jerusalem Post |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} Pro-government protestors have carried posters of Hassan Nasrallah.{{cite web |url=http://www.dp-news.com/en/detail.aspx?articleid=91531 |title=Hezbollah has no role at Syria's crackdown on protesters |work=Dp-news.com |date=28 July 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} Hezbollah states they support a process of reforms in Syria and that they also are against what they term US plots to destabilize and interfere in Syria.{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/04/17/politics/washingtonpost/main20054781.shtml |work=CBS News |title=WikiLeaks: U.S. secretly backed Syria opposition }}
In August, ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' reported that protesters enraged at Hezbollah's support for Assad's government burned Hezbollah flags and images of its leader [[Hassan Nasrallah]] in several places in Syria.<ref>{{cite web|last=Navon |first=Emmanuel |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=233279 |title=Syria uprising stirs old divisions in neighboring Lebanon |work=Jerusalem Post |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Pro-government protestors have carried posters of Hassan Nasrallah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dp-news.com/en/detail.aspx?articleid=91531 |title=Hezbollah has no role at Syria's crackdown on protesters |work=Dp-news.com |date=28 July 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Hezbollah states they support a process of reforms in Syria and that they also are against what they term US plots to destabilize and interfere in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/04/17/politics/washingtonpost/main20054781.shtml |work=CBS News |title=WikiLeaks: U.S. secretly backed Syria opposition }}</ref>


Six months into the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remain largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/middleeast/06damascus.html |title=Life in Syria’s Capital Remains Barely Touched by Rebellion |work=New York Times |date=5 September 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }} The two cities central squares have seen rallies in the tens of thousands in support of Assad and his government.{{cite news |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/110624/syria-protests-assad |title=Syria: What motivates an Assad supporter? |work=Global Post |date=24 June 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }} Analysts and even opposition activists themselves acknowledge that without mass participation in the protest movement from these two cities, the government will survive and avoid the fate of its counterparts in Egypt and Tunisia.
Six months into the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remain largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/middleeast/06damascus.html |title=Life in Syria’s Capital Remains Barely Touched by Rebellion |work=New York Times |date=5 September 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref> The two cities central squares have seen rallies in the tens of thousands in support of Assad and his government.<ref name="GP">{{cite news |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/110624/syria-protests-assad |title=Syria: What motivates an Assad supporter? |work=Global Post |date=24 June 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref> Analysts and even opposition activists themselves acknowledge that without mass participation in the protest movement from these two cities, the government will survive and avoid the fate of its counterparts in Egypt and Tunisia.<ref name="GP" />


Throughout August and September, Syrian forces continued to suppress protests, with hundreds of killings and arrests reportedly having taken place. The crackdown continued into the first three days of November. On 3 November, the government accepted an [[Arab League]] plan that aims to restore the peace in the country. According to members of the opposition, however, government forces continued their suppression of protests. Throughout the month, there were numerous reports of civilians taken from their homes turning up dead and mutilated, clashes between loyalist troops and defectors, and electric shocks and hot iron rods being used to torture detainees.
Throughout August and September, Syrian forces continued to suppress protests, with hundreds of killings and arrests reportedly having taken place. The crackdown continued into the first three days of November. On 3 November, the government accepted an [[Arab League]] plan that aims to restore the peace in the country. According to members of the opposition, however, government forces continued their suppression of protests. Throughout the month, there were numerous reports of civilians taken from their homes turning up dead and mutilated, clashes between loyalist troops and defectors, and electric shocks and hot iron rods being used to torture detainees.
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===Protests and armed clashes===
===Protests and armed clashes===
[[File:Syrian Uprising Map of Homs Neighborhoods.png|250px|thumb|Neighborhoods in Homs under siege (8 February 2012).]]
[[File:Syrian Uprising Map of Homs Neighborhoods.png|250px|thumb|Neighborhoods in Homs under siege (8 February 2012).]]
On 14 November, more than 70 people were killed across Syria as the army clashed with defectors and shot at civilians. Some 34 soldiers and 12 defectors were killed, along with 27 civilians.{{cite news|last=Queenann |first=Gavriel |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/149803 |title=70+ Killed as Syria Violence Escalates|work=Israel National News |date=16 November 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}
On 14 November, more than 70 people were killed across Syria as the army clashed with defectors and shot at civilians. Some 34 soldiers and 12 defectors were killed, along with 27 civilians.<ref>{{cite news|last=Queenann |first=Gavriel |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/149803 |title=70+ Killed as Syria Violence Escalates|work=Israel National News |date=16 November 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref>


On 9 November, UN [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]] [[Navi Pillay]] warned that the country could slip into "a Libyan-style civil war".{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/middleeast/2011/11/2011119181655111178.html|title=UN: More Syrian soldiers defect to opposition|date=9 November 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|work=Al Jazeera}}
On 9 November, UN [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]] [[Navi Pillay]] warned that the country could slip into "a Libyan-style civil war".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/middleeast/2011/11/2011119181655111178.html|title=UN: More Syrian soldiers defect to opposition|date=9 November 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|work=Al Jazeera}}</ref>


On 12 December, local elections under reformed electoral law were held amid the tensions.{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/12/2011121117454234922.html|title=Syria holds local poll amid boycott calls|date=12 December 2011|accessdate=12 December 2011|work=Al Jazeera}}
On 12 December, local elections under reformed electoral law were held amid the tensions.<ref name="localelections">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/12/2011121117454234922.html|title=Syria holds local poll amid boycott calls|date=12 December 2011|accessdate=12 December 2011|work=Al Jazeera}}</ref>


Activists said security forces killed up to 70 army defectors on 19 December as they were deserting their military posts near the Turkish border. At least 30 other people died in other violence across the country, the activists said. If accurate, it would be one of the heaviest daily tolls of the entire revolt up until December.{{cite news|url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/Syria-to-allow-Arab-monitors-100-dead-in-violence/articleshow/11174656.cms |title=Syria to allow Arab monitors, 100 dead in violence |date=19 December 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|location=Beirut|agency= Times of India}}
Activists said security forces killed up to 70 army defectors on 19 December as they were deserting their military posts near the Turkish border. At least 30 other people died in other violence across the country, the activists said. If accurate, it would be one of the heaviest daily tolls of the entire revolt up until December.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/Syria-to-allow-Arab-monitors-100-dead-in-violence/articleshow/11174656.cms |title=Syria to allow Arab monitors, 100 dead in violence |date=19 December 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|location=Beirut|agency= Times of India}}</ref>


On 23 December, [[2011 Damascus bombings|two suicide bomb]]s hit two security facilities in Damascus, killing 30 civilians and soldiers. The government stated the attack "carried the blueprint of [[al-Qaeda]]", whereas opposition members blamed the government,{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/middleeast/syria-says-suicide-bombers-attack-in-damascus.html | work=The New York Times | first=Kareem | last=Fahim | title=Syria Reports Suicide Bomber Attacks in Damascus | date=23 December 2011}} and hinted that the government itself may have been behind the attacks to make its case to Arab League observers who arrived in the country only the day before. Government officials brought the advance team of Arab League observers to the scene to see the wreckage. Omar Idilbi, a member of the Syrian National Council thought the explosions "very mysterious because they happened in heavily guarded areas that are difficult to be penetrated by a car."{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/40-die-in-damascus-suicide-blasts-6280955.html|title=40 die in Damascus suicide blasts|work=The Independent|date=23 December 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012|location=London}} Two days earlier, Lebanese authorities had warned that al-Qaeda members were entering Syria from North Lebanon.{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/23/184128.html |title=Syria blames al-Qaeda for twin suicide attacks in Damascus; at least 44 dead |work=Al Arabiya |date=23 December 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}
On 23 December, [[2011 Damascus bombings|two suicide bomb]]s hit two security facilities in Damascus, killing 30 civilians and soldiers. The government stated the attack "carried the blueprint of [[al-Qaeda]]", whereas opposition members blamed the government,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/middleeast/syria-says-suicide-bombers-attack-in-damascus.html | work=The New York Times | first=Kareem | last=Fahim | title=Syria Reports Suicide Bomber Attacks in Damascus | date=23 December 2011}}</ref> and hinted that the government itself may have been behind the attacks to make its case to Arab League observers who arrived in the country only the day before. Government officials brought the advance team of Arab League observers to the scene to see the wreckage. Omar Idilbi, a member of the Syrian National Council thought the explosions "very mysterious because they happened in heavily guarded areas that are difficult to be penetrated by a car."<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/40-die-in-damascus-suicide-blasts-6280955.html|title=40 die in Damascus suicide blasts|work=The Independent|date=23 December 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012|location=London}}</ref> Two days earlier, Lebanese authorities had warned that al-Qaeda members were entering Syria from North Lebanon.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/23/184128.html |title=Syria blames al-Qaeda for twin suicide attacks in Damascus; at least 44 dead |work=Al Arabiya |date=23 December 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref>


[[File:Bab Dreeb Demonstration, Homs.jpg|thumb|left|Opposition demonstration in one of Homs' districts]]
[[File:Bab Dreeb Demonstration, Homs.jpg|thumb|left|Opposition demonstration in one of Homs' districts]]


On 11 January, a mortar attack on a pro-government rally in Homs killed a French journalist, [[Gilles Jacquier]] of [[France 2]], and seven others.{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/11/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html |title=Syrian president predicts 'triumph'|work=CNN |date= 12 January 2012|accessdate=20 January 2012}}
On 11 January, a mortar attack on a pro-government rally in Homs killed a French journalist, [[Gilles Jacquier]] of [[France 2]], and seven others.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/11/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html |title=Syrian president predicts 'triumph'|work=CNN |date= 12 January 2012|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref>


On 27 January, Arab League observer mission reported on attacks carried out by opposition forces.
On 27 January, Arab League observer mission reported on attacks carried out by opposition forces.


Recently, there have been incidents that could widen the gap and increase bitterness between the parties. These incidents can have grave consequences and lead to the loss of life and property. Such incidents include the bombing of buildings, trains carrying fuel, vehicles carrying diesel oil and explosions targeting the police, members of the media and fuel pipelines. Some of those attacks have been carried out by the Free Syrian Army and some by other armed opposition groups.{{cite web |url=http://www.innercitypress.com/LASomSyria.pdf |title=League of Arab States Observer Mission to Syria |format=PDF |date=27 January 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}
<blockquote>Recently, there have been incidents that could widen the gap and increase bitterness between the parties. These incidents can have grave consequences and lead to the loss of life and property. Such incidents include the bombing of buildings, trains carrying fuel, vehicles carrying diesel oil and explosions targeting the police, members of the media and fuel pipelines. Some of those attacks have been carried out by the Free Syrian Army and some by other armed opposition groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.innercitypress.com/LASomSyria.pdf |title=League of Arab States Observer Mission to Syria |format=PDF |date=27 January 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref></blockquote>


On 1 February, [[Riad al-Asaad]], commander of the Free Syrian army, claimed that "Fifty percent of Syrian territory is no longer under the control of the regime," and that half of the country was now effectively a no-go zone for the security forces. He said the morale of government troops was extremely low. "That’s why they are bombing indiscriminately, killing men, women and children," he said.{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/02/01/191807.html |title=Russia, China oppose ‘forced regime change’ in Syria; Lavrov warns of ‘bigger drama’ |work=Al Arabiya|date=1 February 2012 |accessdate=6 February 2012}}
On 1 February, [[Riad al-Asaad]], commander of the Free Syrian army, claimed that "Fifty percent of Syrian territory is no longer under the control of the regime," and that half of the country was now effectively a no-go zone for the security forces. He said the morale of government troops was extremely low. "That’s why they are bombing indiscriminately, killing men, women and children," he said.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/02/01/191807.html |title=Russia, China oppose ‘forced regime change’ in Syria; Lavrov warns of ‘bigger drama’ |work=Al Arabiya|date=1 February 2012 |accessdate=6 February 2012}}</ref>


Protests have drifted abroad to the doorsteps of Syrian embassies. After the opposition had claimed that more than 200 people perished in the massacre in Homs on 2 February 2012, both Syrian and non-Syrian protesters in [[Cairo]], [[Kuwait City]], and [[London]] damaged their respective Syrian embassy.{{cite news|work=The Guardian|date=4 February 2012|title=Syrian embassies in London and Cairo attacked over Homs massacre|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/feb/04/arrests-syrian-embassy-london-homs}}
Protests have drifted abroad to the doorsteps of Syrian embassies. After the opposition had claimed that more than 200 people perished in the massacre in Homs on 2 February 2012, both Syrian and non-Syrian protesters in [[Cairo]], [[Kuwait City]], and [[London]] damaged their respective Syrian embassy.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Guardian|date=4 February 2012|title=Syrian embassies in London and Cairo attacked over Homs massacre|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/feb/04/arrests-syrian-embassy-london-homs}}</ref>


In an attack on buildings used by Syrian military intelligence in [[Aleppo]], at least 28 people died and 235 were injured on 10 February 2012. The Free Syrian Army, through colonel Arif Hamood, claimed responsibility for the attacks in an interview with [[France 24]], saying [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]] and [[rocket-propelled grenade|RPGs]] had been used instead of [[car bomb]]s as was initially reported.{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/breaking/20120210-free-syrian-army-claims-responsibilty-twin-aleppo-blasts|title=Free Syrian Army claims responsibilty(sic) for twin Aleppo blasts|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=10 February 2012|work=[[France 24]]}} However, shortly thereafter another FSA leader, Riad al-Asaad, denied FSA involvement and asserted a [[false flag|false-flag]] conspiracy in which the Assad government is presented as the perpetrator of the attack on its own buildings.{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120210-free-syrian-army-denies-deadly-bombing-aleppo-assad-un|title=Free Syrian Army blames Assad for Aleppo bombing|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=10 February 2012|work=[[France 24]]|first=Tony|last=Todd}} A correspondent for the Dutch public broadcaster [[Nederlandse Omroep Stichting|NOS]] described the latter as an unlikely explanation for the attacks, pointing out that the FSA have earlier indicated that one of their targets is military intelligence, which they hold responsible for a major part of the violence against the opposition.{{cite web|language=Dutch|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/339554-wie-pleegde-aanslagen-aleppo.html|title=Wie pleegde aanslagen Aleppo?|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=10 February 2012|work=Nederlandse Omroep Stichting}}
In an attack on buildings used by Syrian military intelligence in [[Aleppo]], at least 28 people died and 235 were injured on 10 February 2012. The Free Syrian Army, through colonel Arif Hamood, claimed responsibility for the attacks in an interview with [[France 24]], saying [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]] and [[rocket-propelled grenade|RPGs]] had been used instead of [[car bomb]]s as was initially reported.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/breaking/20120210-free-syrian-army-claims-responsibilty-twin-aleppo-blasts|title=Free Syrian Army claims responsibilty(sic) for twin Aleppo blasts|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=10 February 2012|work=[[France 24]]}}</ref> However, shortly thereafter another FSA leader, Riad al-Asaad, denied FSA involvement and asserted a [[false flag|false-flag]] conspiracy in which the Assad government is presented as the perpetrator of the attack on its own buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120210-free-syrian-army-denies-deadly-bombing-aleppo-assad-un|title=Free Syrian Army blames Assad for Aleppo bombing|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=10 February 2012|work=[[France 24]]|first=Tony|last=Todd}}</ref> A correspondent for the Dutch public broadcaster [[Nederlandse Omroep Stichting|NOS]] described the latter as an unlikely explanation for the attacks, pointing out that the FSA have earlier indicated that one of their targets is military intelligence, which they hold responsible for a major part of the violence against the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|language=Dutch|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/339554-wie-pleegde-aanslagen-aleppo.html|title=Wie pleegde aanslagen Aleppo?|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=10 February 2012|work=Nederlandse Omroep Stichting}}</ref>


===Ceasefire attempt===
===Ceasefire attempt===
{{main|Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria}}
{{main|Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria}}
Kofi Annan's peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.{{citation |separator= . |title= Deadly Reprisals: deliberate killings and other abuses by Syria's armed forces |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/041/2012/en/30416985-883b-4e67-b386-0df14a79f694/mde240412012en.pdf |publisher= Amnesty International |month= June |year= 2012 |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }}{{rp|11}} Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.{{cite web |title= Syria: Repression continues despite Annan plan hopes |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-repression-continues-despite-annan-plan-hopes-2012-04-03 |publisher= Amnesty International |date= 3 April 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.{{cite web |title= Iran reaffirms full support for Annan's Syria peace plan |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/10/225485.html |publisher= Al Arabiya News |date= 10 July 2012 |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}
Kofi Annan's peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.<ref name = "deadly reprisals">{{citation |separator= . |title= Deadly Reprisals: deliberate killings and other abuses by Syria's armed forces |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/041/2012/en/30416985-883b-4e67-b386-0df14a79f694/mde240412012en.pdf |publisher= Amnesty International |month= June |year= 2012 |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }}</ref>{{rp|11}} Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.<ref>{{cite web |title= Syria: Repression continues despite Annan plan hopes |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-repression-continues-despite-annan-plan-hopes-2012-04-03 |publisher= Amnesty International |date= 3 April 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.<ref>{{cite web |title= Iran reaffirms full support for Annan's Syria peace plan |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/10/225485.html |publisher= Al Arabiya News |date= 10 July 2012 |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}</ref>


===Renewed fighting===
===Renewed fighting===
Following the [[Houla massacre]] and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the cease fire practically collapsed towards the end of May 2012, as FSA began nation-wide offensives against the government troops. On 1 June, the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad vowed to crush an anti-regime uprising, after the rebel Free Syrian Army (FSA) announced that it was resuming "defensive operations."
Following the [[Houla massacre]] and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the cease fire practically collapsed towards the end of May 2012, as FSA began nation-wide offensives against the government troops. On 1 June, the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad vowed to crush an anti-regime uprising, after the rebel Free Syrian Army (FSA) announced that it was resuming "defensive operations."<ref name=aa0406/>


On 2 June, 57 soldiers were killed in Syria, the largest number of casualties the military has suffered in a single day since the uprising broke out in mid-March 2011.{{cite web|author=|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/04/218430.html |title=Deadly violence flares in Syria as EU-Russia seek solutions |publisher=English.alarabiya.net |date=2012-06-04 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}
On 2 June, 57 soldiers were killed in Syria, the largest number of casualties the military has suffered in a single day since the uprising broke out in mid-March 2011.<ref name=aa0406>{{cite web|author=|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/04/218430.html |title=Deadly violence flares in Syria as EU-Russia seek solutions |publisher=English.alarabiya.net |date=2012-06-04 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}</ref>


Since 5 June, the Syrian army has been [[Battle of Latakia (2012)|battling rebels]] around the city of Latakia, using tanks and helicopter gunships.{{cite web|author=Source: reuters // Reuters |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/assad-names-new-syrian-pm-army-battles-rebels/ |title=Assad names new Syrian PM, army battles rebels - AlertNet |publisher=Trust.org |date=2012-06-06 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}
Since 5 June, the Syrian army has been [[Battle of Latakia (2012)|battling rebels]] around the city of Latakia, using tanks and helicopter gunships.<ref>{{cite web|author=Source: reuters // Reuters |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/assad-names-new-syrian-pm-army-battles-rebels/ |title=Assad names new Syrian PM, army battles rebels - AlertNet |publisher=Trust.org |date=2012-06-06 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}</ref>


On 6 June, 78 civilians were killed in the [[Al-Qubair massacre]]. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before pro-government militia, the [[Shabiha]], moved in.{{cite web|title=New 'massacre' reported in Syria's Hama province|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18348201|publisher=BBC News}} The UN observers rushed to the village in a hope to investigate the alleged massacre but were met with a road-block and small arms fire before the village and were forced to retreat.{{cite web|title=Syria UN team 'shot at' near Qubair 'massacre site'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18352281|publisher=BBC News}}{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/07/219098.html|title=Syrian army blocks U.N. monitors entering Hama ‘massacre’ site: activists, U.N. official|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=2012-06-07|accessdate=2012-06-07}}
On 6 June, 78 civilians were killed in the [[Al-Qubair massacre]]. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before pro-government militia, the [[Shabiha]], moved in.<ref name="bbc_new_massacre">{{cite web|title=New 'massacre' reported in Syria's Hama province|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18348201|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> The UN observers rushed to the village in a hope to investigate the alleged massacre but were met with a road-block and small arms fire before the village and were forced to retreat.<ref>{{cite web|title=Syria UN team 'shot at' near Qubair 'massacre site'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18352281|publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/07/219098.html|title=Syrian army blocks U.N. monitors entering Hama ‘massacre’ site: activists, U.N. official|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=2012-06-07|accessdate=2012-06-07}}</ref>


At the same time, the conflict has started moving into the two largest cities (Damascus and Aleppo) that the government claimed were being dominated by the silent majority, which wanted stability, not government change. In both places there has been a revival of the protest movement in its peaceful dimension. Shopkeepers across the capital staged a general strike and in several Aleppo commercial districts mounted a similar but smaller protest. This has been interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities has become weak.Ivan Watson (12 June 2012) [http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/meast/syria-battle-for-cities/index.html "Syria: Battle for the cities"]. CNN.
At the same time, the conflict has started moving into the two largest cities (Damascus and Aleppo) that the government claimed were being dominated by the silent majority, which wanted stability, not government change. In both places there has been a revival of the protest movement in its peaceful dimension. Shopkeepers across the capital staged a general strike and in several Aleppo commercial districts mounted a similar but smaller protest. This has been interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities has become weak.<ref>Ivan Watson (12 June 2012) [http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/meast/syria-battle-for-cities/index.html "Syria: Battle for the cities"]. CNN.</ref>


On 22 June, a Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 fighter jet]] was shot down by Syrian government forces.{{cite web|author= |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/22/222135.html |title=Turkey confirms Syria shot down F-4 military jet, search for pilots ongoing |publisher=English.alarabiya.net |date=2012-06-22 |accessdate=2012-07-06}} Both pilots were killed.{{cite web |title= Bodies of Turkish jet crew shot down by Syria found |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18707069 |publisher= BBC News |date= 4 July 2012 |accessdate= 4 July 2012 }} Syria admitted shooting the fighter down, stating that the Turkish fighter was flying over Syrian [[territorial waters]] 1 kilometer away from land when it was fired on by anti-aircraft artillery near the village of Om al-Tuyour.{{cite news |url=http://www.sana.sy/eng/21/2012/06/23/427102.htm |title=Military Spokesman: Anti-Air Defenses Intercepted a Target That Violated Syrian Airspace Over Territorial Waters, Shot It Down West of Lattakia |publisher=Syrian Arab News Agency |date=23 June 2012 |accessdate=23 June 2012}} Turkey's foreign minister stated the jet was shot down in international airspace after accidentally entering Syrian airspace, while it was on a training flight to test Turkey's radar capabilities.{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/24/turkey-plane-shot-down-syria?newsfeed=true |title=Turkey goes to Nato over plane it says Syria downed in international airspace |publisher=The Guardian |date=24 June 2012 |accessdate=24 June 2012}} Turkish Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdogan]] vowed retaliation, saying: "The rules of engagement of the Turkish Armed Forces have changed ... Turkey will support Syrian people in every way until they get rid of the bloody dictator and his gang."{{cite news |url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/international/26-Jun-2012/turkey-dubs-syria-a-clear-threat-vows-to-retaliate |title=Turkey dubs Syria 'a clear threat', vows to retaliate |work=[[The Nation (Pakistani newspaper)|The Nation]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] |date=26 June 2012 |accessdate=26 June 2012}} Ankara acknowledged that the jet had flown over Syria for a short time, but said such temporary overflights were common, had not led to an attack before, and alleged that Syrian helicopters had violated Turkish airspace five times without being attacked and that a second, search-and-rescue jet had been fired at.{{cite web |last1= Borger |first1= Julian |last2= Chulov |first2= Martin |last3= Elder |first3= Miriam |date= 26 June 2012 |title= Syria shot at second Turkish jet, Ankara claims |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/25/syria-shooting-second-turkish-plane-claim |publisher= guardian.co.uk |accessdate= 26 June 2012 }} An anonymous Israeli air force source suggested Russian technicians played a key role in the interception and shooting down of the jet, though no evidence was presented.{{cite news |last= Mahnaimi |first= Uzi |last2= Jenkins |first2= Gareth |date= 1 July 2012 |title=  'Russia's finger on button' that destroyed Turkish jet |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1072000.ece |newspaper= The Sunday Times |accessdate= 5 July 2012 }} {{" '}}We would not be surprised if these Russian experts, if they didn't push the button, at least were beside the Syrian officers who did it,' an Israeli air force source said." {{subscription}} Assad later expressed regret over the incident.{{cite web |title= Syria-Turkey tension: Assad 'regrets' F-4 jet's downing |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18685250 |publisher= BBC News |date= 3 July 2012 |accessdate= 4 July 2012 }}
On 22 June, a Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 fighter jet]] was shot down by Syrian government forces.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/22/222135.html |title=Turkey confirms Syria shot down F-4 military jet, search for pilots ongoing |publisher=English.alarabiya.net |date=2012-06-22 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}</ref> Both pilots were killed.<ref>{{cite web |title= Bodies of Turkish jet crew shot down by Syria found |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18707069 |publisher= BBC News |date= 4 July 2012 |accessdate= 4 July 2012 }}</ref> Syria admitted shooting the fighter down, stating that the Turkish fighter was flying over Syrian [[territorial waters]] 1 kilometer away from land when it was fired on by anti-aircraft artillery near the village of Om al-Tuyour.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sana.sy/eng/21/2012/06/23/427102.htm |title=Military Spokesman: Anti-Air Defenses Intercepted a Target That Violated Syrian Airspace Over Territorial Waters, Shot It Down West of Lattakia |publisher=Syrian Arab News Agency |date=23 June 2012 |accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> Turkey's foreign minister stated the jet was shot down in international airspace after accidentally entering Syrian airspace, while it was on a training flight to test Turkey's radar capabilities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/24/turkey-plane-shot-down-syria?newsfeed=true |title=Turkey goes to Nato over plane it says Syria downed in international airspace |publisher=The Guardian |date=24 June 2012 |accessdate=24 June 2012}}</ref> Turkish Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdogan]] vowed retaliation, saying: "The rules of engagement of the Turkish Armed Forces have changed ... Turkey will support Syrian people in every way until they get rid of the bloody dictator and his gang."<ref name = "nation bloody">{{cite news |url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/international/26-Jun-2012/turkey-dubs-syria-a-clear-threat-vows-to-retaliate |title=Turkey dubs Syria 'a clear threat', vows to retaliate |work=[[The Nation (Pakistani newspaper)|The Nation]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] |date=26 June 2012 |accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref> Ankara acknowledged that the jet had flown over Syria for a short time, but said such temporary overflights were common, had not led to an attack before, and alleged that Syrian helicopters had violated Turkish airspace five times without being attacked and that a second, search-and-rescue jet had been fired at.<ref name = "nation bloody"/><ref name = "G 2nd jet">{{cite web |last1= Borger |first1= Julian |last2= Chulov |first2= Martin |last3= Elder |first3= Miriam |date= 26 June 2012 |title= Syria shot at second Turkish jet, Ankara claims |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/25/syria-shooting-second-turkish-plane-claim |publisher= guardian.co.uk |accessdate= 26 June 2012 }}</ref> An anonymous Israeli air force source suggested Russian technicians played a key role in the interception and shooting down of the jet, though no evidence was presented.<ref>{{cite news |last= Mahnaimi |first= Uzi |last2= Jenkins |first2= Gareth |date= 1 July 2012 |title= &nbsp;'Russia's finger on button' that destroyed Turkish jet |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1072000.ece |newspaper= The Sunday Times |accessdate= 5 July 2012 }} {{" '}}We would not be surprised if these Russian experts, if they didn't push the button, at least were beside the Syrian officers who did it,' an Israeli air force source said." {{subscription}}</ref> Assad later expressed regret over the incident.<ref>{{cite web |title= Syria-Turkey tension: Assad 'regrets' F-4 jet's downing |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18685250 |publisher= BBC News |date= 3 July 2012 |accessdate= 4 July 2012 }}</ref>


Attempts by the international community to agree a transitional government of national unity failed at the beginning of July after Russia insisted the agreement should not preclude Assad from being part of it.{{cite news |last1= Khalaf |first1= Roula |last2= Fielding-Smith |first2= Abigail |date= 1 July 2012 |title= Syria talks fail to satisfy opposition |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e8de30f0-c38e-11e1-ad80-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 3 July 2012 }} Syrian opposition groups rejected the UN-brokered peace plan, arguing that it was ambiguous, and vowing not to negotiate with President Bashar Assad or members of his regime.{{cite news|last=Karam|first=Zeina|title=Syrian opposition rejects new international plan|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gAgt_n_QRiowGiz6mLziaF9ImLcQ?docId=4d8c034f77504f5c9869140d2ee53d09|accessdate=7 July 2012|newspaper=Associated Press|date=1 July 2012}}
Attempts by the international community to agree a transitional government of national unity failed at the beginning of July after Russia insisted the agreement should not preclude Assad from being part of it.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Khalaf |first1= Roula |last2= Fielding-Smith |first2= Abigail |date= 1 July 2012 |title= Syria talks fail to satisfy opposition |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e8de30f0-c38e-11e1-ad80-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 3 July 2012 }}</ref> Syrian opposition groups rejected the UN-brokered peace plan, arguing that it was ambiguous, and vowing not to negotiate with President Bashar Assad or members of his regime.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karam|first=Zeina|title=Syrian opposition rejects new international plan|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gAgt_n_QRiowGiz6mLziaF9ImLcQ?docId=4d8c034f77504f5c9869140d2ee53d09|accessdate=7 July 2012|newspaper=Associated Press|date=1 July 2012}}</ref>


In early July, Manaf Tlass, a Brigadier General of the Republican Guard, defected from Syria, making him the highest-level military defector yet since the uprising began. Western diplomats said his flight is a sign of Assad's weakening inner circle.{{cite news|last=Dagher|first=Sam|title=In Paris, Diplomats Cheer Syria General's Defection|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304141204577510124016836002.html?mod=googlenews_wsj|accessdate=7 July 2012|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=6 July 2012}} Nawaf al-Fares, the Syrian ambassador to Iraq who has sympathized with the opposition movement since it began in March 2011, defected to the opposition in Mid July 2012.{{cite web|title=Syrian opposition reports 'massacre' in Hama province|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/12/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t2|publisher=CNN|accessdate=15 July 2012|author=CNN Wire Staff|date=13 July 2012}}
In early July, Manaf Tlass, a Brigadier General of the Republican Guard, defected from Syria, making him the highest-level military defector yet since the uprising began. Western diplomats said his flight is a sign of Assad's weakening inner circle.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dagher|first=Sam|title=In Paris, Diplomats Cheer Syria General's Defection|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304141204577510124016836002.html?mod=googlenews_wsj|accessdate=7 July 2012|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=6 July 2012}}</ref> Nawaf al-Fares, the Syrian ambassador to Iraq who has sympathized with the opposition movement since it began in March 2011, defected to the opposition in Mid July 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Syrian opposition reports 'massacre' in Hama province|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/12/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t2|publisher=CNN|accessdate=15 July 2012|author=CNN Wire Staff|date=13 July 2012}}</ref>


==Parties in the conflict==
==Parties in the conflict==
Line 211: Line 213:
The Syrian opposition met several times in conferences held mostly in [[Turkey]] and formed a National Council.
The Syrian opposition met several times in conferences held mostly in [[Turkey]] and formed a National Council.


The Federation of Tenseekiet Syrian Revolution helped in the formation of a Transitional National Assembly on 23 August in [[Istanbul]] "to serve as the political stage of the Revolution of the Syrian people". The creation of the Syrian National Council was celebrated by the Syrian protestors since the Friday protest following its establishment was dubbed "The Syrian National Council Represents Me".Sarra Grira (13 January 2012) [http://observers.france24.com/content/20120113-syria-cracks-emerge-opposition-amid-ongoing-anti-government-protests-assad "Cracks emerge in Syrian opposition amid ongoing anti-government protests"], [[France 24]].Amal Hanano (18 April 2012) [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04/18/any_given_friday "Any given Friday"], ''[[Foreign Policy]]''. The Syrian National Council gained the recognition of a few countries, including "sole legitimate interlocutor" by the United States.{{Cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Syria-Opposition-Backers-Meet-in-Istanbul-145474675.html|title=Gulf Nations to Pay Syrian Rebel Salaries, US Offers Non-Lethal Support|work=Voice of America|location=Istanbul|first=Dorian|last=Jones|accessdate=12 May 2012|date=1 April 2012}} The SNC is said to have developed a debilitating democratic deficit, and some opposition actors on the ground in Syria subsequently refuse to work with it.{{citation |separator= . |last= O'Bagy |first= Elizabeth |date= 7 June 2012 |title= Syria's Political Struggle: Spring 2012 |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Backgrounder_SyriasPoliticalStruggle_Spring2012.pdf |publisher= Institute for the Study of War |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}{{rp|5–9}}
The Federation of Tenseekiet Syrian Revolution helped in the formation of a Transitional National Assembly on 23 August in [[Istanbul]] "to serve as the political stage of the Revolution of the Syrian people". The creation of the Syrian National Council was celebrated by the Syrian protestors since the Friday protest following its establishment was dubbed "The Syrian National Council Represents Me".<ref>Sarra Grira (13 January 2012) [http://observers.france24.com/content/20120113-syria-cracks-emerge-opposition-amid-ongoing-anti-government-protests-assad "Cracks emerge in Syrian opposition amid ongoing anti-government protests"], [[France 24]].</ref><ref>Amal Hanano (18 April 2012) [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04/18/any_given_friday "Any given Friday"], ''[[Foreign Policy]]''.</ref> The Syrian National Council gained the recognition of a few countries, including "sole legitimate interlocutor" by the United States.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Syria-Opposition-Backers-Meet-in-Istanbul-145474675.html|title=Gulf Nations to Pay Syrian Rebel Salaries, US Offers Non-Lethal Support|work=Voice of America|location=Istanbul|first=Dorian|last=Jones|accessdate=12 May 2012|date=1 April 2012}}</ref> The SNC is said to have developed a debilitating democratic deficit, and some opposition actors on the ground in Syria subsequently refuse to work with it.<ref name = "backgrounder">{{citation |separator= . |last= O'Bagy |first= Elizabeth |date= 7 June 2012 |title= Syria's Political Struggle: Spring 2012 |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Backgrounder_SyriasPoliticalStruggle_Spring2012.pdf |publisher= Institute for the Study of War |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>{{rp|5–9}}


===Local coordination committees===
===Local coordination committees===
{{main|Local coordination committees of Syria}}
{{main|Local coordination committees of Syria}}
The networks of anti-government protest organizers formed decentralized "Local Coordination Committees" which drew together the young, unorganized protesters. The Committees are used to document protests and spread anti-government messages throughout Syria. Though they have only a few hundred members, the Local Coordination Committees rose to prominence as the core of the protest movement on the ground, separate from the organized political opposition. The Committees are also noted for trying to reach out to minority groups and diversify the demonstrations.{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/01/world/middleeast/01syria.html | work=The New York Times | first=Anthony | last=Shadid | title=Coalition of Factions From the Streets Fuels a New Opposition in Syria | date=30 June 2011}}
The networks of anti-government protest organizers formed decentralized "Local Coordination Committees" which drew together the young, unorganized protesters. The Committees are used to document protests and spread anti-government messages throughout Syria. Though they have only a few hundred members, the Local Coordination Committees rose to prominence as the core of the protest movement on the ground, separate from the organized political opposition. The Committees are also noted for trying to reach out to minority groups and diversify the demonstrations.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/01/world/middleeast/01syria.html | work=The New York Times | first=Anthony | last=Shadid | title=Coalition of Factions From the Streets Fuels a New Opposition in Syria | date=30 June 2011}}</ref>


===Free Syrian Army and other armed opposition groups===
===Free Syrian Army and other armed opposition groups===
{{main|Free Syrian Army}}
{{main|Free Syrian Army}}
In late July 2011, a web video featuring a group of uniformed men claiming to be defected [[Syrian Army]] officers proclaimed the formation of a [[Free Syrian Army]] (FSA). In the video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend protesters from violence by the state.{{cite news |work=The World Tribune |url=http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_syria0973_08_03.asp |title=Defecting troops form 'Free Syrian Army', target Assad security forces |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.{{cite news|title=Free Syrian Army Partners with Opposition: What's Next for Syria?|work=International Business Times|date=1 December 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/259730/20111201/free-syrian-army-partners-opposition-s-syria.htm|first=Daniel|last=Torvov}} The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 as of December 2011.{{cite news|title=Ranks of Free Syrian Army 'gaining strength'|work=Al Jazeera|date=2 December 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/12/20111226171260898.html}} [[Nir Rosen]], who spent time with the FSA in Syria, claims the majority of its members are civilians rather than defectors, who had taken up arms long before the formation of the FSA was announced. He also stated they have no central leadership.{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/02/201221315020166516.html |title=Q&A: Nir Rosen on Syria's armed opposition|work=Al Jazeera|date=21 February 2012|first=Nir|last=Rosen|accessdate=22 February 2012}} The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fight under the FSA's banner.
In late July 2011, a web video featuring a group of uniformed men claiming to be defected [[Syrian Army]] officers proclaimed the formation of a [[Free Syrian Army]] (FSA). In the video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend protesters from violence by the state.<ref name=worldtribune1>{{cite news |work=The World Tribune |url=http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_syria0973_08_03.asp |title=Defecting troops form 'Free Syrian Army', target Assad security forces |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.<ref>{{cite news|title=Free Syrian Army Partners with Opposition: What's Next for Syria?|work=International Business Times|date=1 December 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/259730/20111201/free-syrian-army-partners-opposition-s-syria.htm|first=Daniel|last=Torvov}}</ref> The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 as of December 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ranks of Free Syrian Army 'gaining strength'|work=Al Jazeera|date=2 December 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/12/20111226171260898.html}}</ref> [[Nir Rosen]], who spent time with the FSA in Syria, claims the majority of its members are civilians rather than defectors, who had taken up arms long before the formation of the FSA was announced. He also stated they have no central leadership.<ref name=nirrosen>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/02/201221315020166516.html |title=Q&A: Nir Rosen on Syria's armed opposition|work=Al Jazeera|date=21 February 2012|first=Nir|last=Rosen|accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref> The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fight under the FSA's banner.<ref name = "report 3"/>


As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted [[guerilla]]-style tactics against security forces inside cities. Its primary target has been the [[shabiha]] militias. Most FSA attacks however are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to bring security reinforcements. Sometimes the vehicle occupants are taken as [[hostage]]s, in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with [[Improvised explosive device|roadside bombs]] or through hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted [[Overhead power line|power lines]] and [[Water supply network|water mains]] in "retaliation against Hezbollah’s provocations."[http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=359891 Michael Weiss: Hezbollah's secret war on Syrian rebels] NOW Lebanon, 2 February 2012 To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods rife with opposition, guarding streets while protests take place, and attacking shabiha members. However, the FSA engaged in street battles with security forces in [[Deir ez-Zor]], Al-Rastan, and [[Al-Bukamal]]. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor, and Daraa, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a [[no-fly zone]].{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/124717/syrian-opposition-calls-for-no-fly-zone.html |title=Syrian Opposition Call for No-Fly Zone |work=Turkish Weekly|date=8 October 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}} The Free Syrian Army numbers about 15,000 men according to a statement its leader [[Riad al-Asaad]] made on [[Al Jazeera]], and he added that these were almost exclusively reserve troops that defected from the Syrian army, and thus were no match against the government's highly trained active-duty troops.
As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted [[guerilla]]-style tactics against security forces inside cities. Its primary target has been the [[shabiha]] militias. Most FSA attacks however are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to bring security reinforcements. Sometimes the vehicle occupants are taken as [[hostage]]s, in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with [[Improvised explosive device|roadside bombs]] or through hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted [[Overhead power line|power lines]] and [[Water supply network|water mains]] in "retaliation against Hezbollah’s provocations."<ref>[http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=359891 Michael Weiss: Hezbollah's secret war on Syrian rebels] NOW Lebanon, 2 February 2012</ref> To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods rife with opposition, guarding streets while protests take place, and attacking shabiha members. However, the FSA engaged in street battles with security forces in [[Deir ez-Zor]], Al-Rastan, and [[Al-Bukamal]]. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor, and Daraa, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a [[no-fly zone]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/124717/syrian-opposition-calls-for-no-fly-zone.html |title=Syrian Opposition Call for No-Fly Zone |work=Turkish Weekly|date=8 October 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> The Free Syrian Army numbers about 15,000 men according to a statement its leader [[Riad al-Asaad]] made on [[Al Jazeera]], and he added that these were almost exclusively reserve troops that defected from the Syrian army, and thus were no match against the government's highly trained active-duty troops.


More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces have been killed, which the Syrian government states is due to "armed gangs" being among the protesters, yet the opposition blames the deaths on the government.{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/07/world/middleeast/07syria.html| work=The New York Times | first=Anthony | last=Shadid | title=Protests Across Syria Despite Military Presence | date=6 May 2011}} Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the [[black market]] since the beginning of the protests.{{cite news|first=Mona|last=Alami |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/05/201151410154606644.html |title=As Arab Spring continues, black markets boom|work=Al Jazeera|date=14 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011}} Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist.{{cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/tribal-justice-blamed-for-deaths-of-120-syrian-police-and-soldiers|title=Tribal justice blamed for deaths of 120 Syrian police and soldiers|first=Phil|last=Sands|work=The National |accessdate=1 February 2012|date=17 May 2011}} On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post.{{cite news|last=Karouny |first=Mariam |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/06/us-syria-ambush-idUSTRE7553AI20110606|title=Syria to send in army after 120 troops killed |agency=Reuters |date= 6 June 2011|accessdate=12 June 2011}} The main centers of unrest – Daraa near Jordan, where the uprising began, [[Talkalakh]], Homs, [[Talbiseh]], and [[Al-Rastan]] near Lebanon, and [[Jisr ash-Shugur]] near Turkey – have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0609/Has-Syria-s-peaceful-uprising-turned-into-an-insurrection/(page)/2 |title=Has Syria's peaceful uprising turned into an insurrection?|first=Nicholas|last=Blanford|work=Christian Science Monitor|date=9 June 2011}}
More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces have been killed, which the Syrian government states is due to "armed gangs" being among the protesters, yet the opposition blames the deaths on the government.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/07/world/middleeast/07syria.html| work=The New York Times | first=Anthony | last=Shadid | title=Protests Across Syria Despite Military Presence | date=6 May 2011}}</ref> Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the [[black market]] since the beginning of the protests.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mona|last=Alami |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/05/201151410154606644.html |title=As Arab Spring continues, black markets boom|work=Al Jazeera|date=14 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/tribal-justice-blamed-for-deaths-of-120-syrian-police-and-soldiers|title=Tribal justice blamed for deaths of 120 Syrian police and soldiers|first=Phil|last=Sands|work=The National |accessdate=1 February 2012|date=17 May 2011}}</ref> On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karouny |first=Mariam |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/06/us-syria-ambush-idUSTRE7553AI20110606|title=Syria to send in army after 120 troops killed |agency=Reuters |date= 6 June 2011|accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> The main centers of unrest – Daraa near Jordan, where the uprising began, [[Talkalakh]], Homs, [[Talbiseh]], and [[Al-Rastan]] near Lebanon, and [[Jisr ash-Shugur]] near Turkey – have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0609/Has-Syria-s-peaceful-uprising-turned-into-an-insurrection/(page)/2 |title=Has Syria's peaceful uprising turned into an insurrection?|first=Nicholas|last=Blanford|work=Christian Science Monitor|date=9 June 2011}}</ref>


In September 2011, the Syrian government claimed to have killed a total of 700 insurgents.{{cite news|url=http://presstv.com/detail/199122.html|work=PressTV|date=14 September 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|title=Foreign media overstate Syria death toll}}
In September 2011, the Syrian government claimed to have killed a total of 700 insurgents.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://presstv.com/detail/199122.html|work=PressTV|date=14 September 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|title=Foreign media overstate Syria death toll}}</ref>


Daniel Byman believes the political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other,{{cite news |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 10 February 2012 |title= Can we help Syria without making things worse? |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/can-we-help-syria-without-making-things-worse/2012/02/08/gIQAD6HJ4Q_story.html |newspaper= The Washington Post |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} and thus uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism is crucial. The latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern.{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 2 February 2012 |title= Finish Him: Why the World Needs to Take Out Bashar al-Assad Now |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/02/02/finish_him_assad_syria |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} Others would say that part of Byman's analysis represents a failure to understand that the leadership within Syria is decentralised out of necessity, that this is a good thing, and that decentralisation is not the same thing as fragmentation, and certainly does not represent an absence of strong leadership.{{cite web |last= O'Bagy |first= Elizabeth |date= 29 June 2012 |title= Disorganized Like a Fox |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/29/disorganized_like_a_fox |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }} Whichever view one accepts, there are undeniably rivalries between different strands and disagreement between those advocating peaceful protests and those backing armed struggle.{{cite news |last= Solomon |first= Erika |date= 27 April 2012 |title= Rebel rivalry and suspicions threaten Syria revolt |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/27/us-syria-rebels-idUSBRE83Q0S120120427 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 11 July 2012 }}{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syrian opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/04/224514.html |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}
Daniel Byman believes the political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other,<ref>{{cite news |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 10 February 2012 |title= Can we help Syria without making things worse? |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/can-we-help-syria-without-making-things-worse/2012/02/08/gIQAD6HJ4Q_story.html |newspaper= The Washington Post |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> and thus uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism is crucial. The latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern.<ref>{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 2 February 2012 |title= Finish Him: Why the World Needs to Take Out Bashar al-Assad Now |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/02/02/finish_him_assad_syria |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> Others would say that part of Byman's analysis represents a failure to understand that the leadership within Syria is decentralised out of necessity, that this is a good thing, and that decentralisation is not the same thing as fragmentation, and certainly does not represent an absence of strong leadership.<ref name = "FP fox">{{cite web |last= O'Bagy |first= Elizabeth |date= 29 June 2012 |title= Disorganized Like a Fox |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/29/disorganized_like_a_fox |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}</ref> Whichever view one accepts, there are undeniably rivalries between different strands and disagreement between those advocating peaceful protests and those backing armed struggle.<ref>{{cite news |last= Solomon |first= Erika |date= 27 April 2012 |title= Rebel rivalry and suspicions threaten Syria revolt |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/27/us-syria-rebels-idUSBRE83Q0S120120427 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 11 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syrian opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/04/224514.html |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}</ref>


===Kurdish and Palestinian stance===
===Kurdish and Palestinian stance===
{{main|Kurdish participation in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
{{main|Kurdish participation in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
Syrian Kurds represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic and social rights. Additionally, since 1962, they and their children had been denied Syrian nationality, a situation that led to other problems relating to personal status and an inability to seek employment in the public sector.{{rp|7}} When protests began, Assad's government, in an effort to try and neutralise potential Kurdish opposition, finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds.{{cite web |last= Muscati |first= Samer |date= 14 May 2012 |title= Syrian Kurds Fleeing to Iraqi Safe Haven |url= http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/14/syrian-kurds-fleeing-iraqi-safe-haven |publisher= Human Rights Watch |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} This concession on citizenship, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish underrepresentation in the Syrian National Council, has meant that Kurds have participated in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab counterparts.{{cite news|last=Weiss |first=Michael |url=http://www.npr.org/2011/11/16/142387417/new-republic-will-kurds-determine-syrias-fate |title=New Republic: Will Kurds Determine Syria's Fate? |work=NPR |date=16 November 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}} Consequently, violence and repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe.{{cite web |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/syria-kurdish-groups-armed-forces-assad-controversy |title=In Syria, Kurds Split Over Support for Assad Regime |last=Erlich |first=Reese |publisher=[[Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting]] |date=27 October 2011 |accessdate=16 February 2012}} According to Ariel Zirulnick of the ''Christian Science Monitor'', the Assad government "has successfully convinced many of Syria's Kurds and Christians that without the iron grip of a leader sympathetic to the threats posed to minorities, they might meet the same fate" as minorities in Lebanon and Iraq.{{cite news |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/1005/Who-backs-Syria-s-Assad-Top-4-sources-of-support/Christian-and-Kurdish-minorities |title=Who backs Syria's Assad? Top 4 sources of support |work=Christian Science Monitor|last=Zirulnick |first=Ariel |accessdate=2 November 2011|date=5 October 2011}} In terms of a post-Assad Syria, Kurds reportedly desire a degree of autonomy within a decentralised state.{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syria opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/uk-syria-crisis-rifts-idUKBRE8630IY20120704 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}
Syrian Kurds represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic and social rights. Additionally, since 1962, they and their children had been denied Syrian nationality, a situation that led to other problems relating to personal status and an inability to seek employment in the public sector.<ref name = "OHCHR Sep11"/>{{rp|7}} When protests began, Assad's government, in an effort to try and neutralise potential Kurdish opposition, finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds.<ref name = "HRW Kurds">{{cite web |last= Muscati |first= Samer |date= 14 May 2012 |title= Syrian Kurds Fleeing to Iraqi Safe Haven |url= http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/14/syrian-kurds-fleeing-iraqi-safe-haven |publisher= Human Rights Watch |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> This concession on citizenship, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish underrepresentation in the Syrian National Council, has meant that Kurds have participated in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab counterparts.<ref name = "HRW Kurds"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Weiss |first=Michael |url=http://www.npr.org/2011/11/16/142387417/new-republic-will-kurds-determine-syrias-fate |title=New Republic: Will Kurds Determine Syria's Fate? |work=NPR |date=16 November 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref> Consequently, violence and repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe.<ref name = "HRW Kurds"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/syria-kurdish-groups-armed-forces-assad-controversy |title=In Syria, Kurds Split Over Support for Assad Regime |last=Erlich |first=Reese |publisher=[[Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting]] |date=27 October 2011 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> According to Ariel Zirulnick of the ''Christian Science Monitor'', the Assad government "has successfully convinced many of Syria's Kurds and Christians that without the iron grip of a leader sympathetic to the threats posed to minorities, they might meet the same fate" as minorities in Lebanon and Iraq.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/1005/Who-backs-Syria-s-Assad-Top-4-sources-of-support/Christian-and-Kurdish-minorities |title=Who backs Syria's Assad? Top 4 sources of support |work=Christian Science Monitor|last=Zirulnick |first=Ariel |accessdate=2 November 2011|date=5 October 2011}}</ref> In terms of a post-Assad Syria, Kurds reportedly desire a degree of autonomy within a decentralised state.<ref name = "Cairo July">{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syria opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/uk-syria-crisis-rifts-idUKBRE8630IY20120704 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>


In 2012, several cities with large Kurdish populations, such as [[Qamishli]] and [[Al-Hasakah]], began witnessing protests of several thousand people against the Syrian government, which responded with tanks and fired upon the protesters.{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-39557-Syrian-police-open-fire-on-Kurdish-rally |title=Syrian police open fire on Kurdish rally |work=The News|date=13 March 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}
In 2012, several cities with large Kurdish populations, such as [[Qamishli]] and [[Al-Hasakah]], began witnessing protests of several thousand people against the Syrian government, which responded with tanks and fired upon the protesters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-39557-Syrian-police-open-fire-on-Kurdish-rally |title=Syrian police open fire on Kurdish rally |work=The News|date=13 March 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref>


Senior [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) leader [[Cemil Bayik]] stated that if Turkey were to intervene against Assad, the PKK would fight on the Syrian side. The PKK's Syrian branch is alleged to be involved in the targeting of Kurds participating in the uprising.{{cite web|url=http://www.kurdishglobe.net/display-article.html?id=B401BD71512EFC6525D69EA3048CD6F7 |title=Syria's Kurds: are they about to join the uprising against Assad? |work=Kurdish Globe |accessdate=13 November 2011}}
Senior [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) leader [[Cemil Bayik]] stated that if Turkey were to intervene against Assad, the PKK would fight on the Syrian side. The PKK's Syrian branch is alleged to be involved in the targeting of Kurds participating in the uprising.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kurdishglobe.net/display-article.html?id=B401BD71512EFC6525D69EA3048CD6F7 |title=Syria's Kurds: are they about to join the uprising against Assad? |work=Kurdish Globe |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref>


In May 2012, a delegation of the [[Kurdish National Council of Syria]] (KNCS), a coalition of ten Syrian-Kurdish parties established in October 2011, was invited to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] for talks. Amongst others the delegation met [[Robert Stephen Ford|Robert Ford]], the former [[US Ambassador to Syria|U.S. ambassador to Syria]].[http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/5/syriakurd497.htm Kurdish National Council of Syria KNCS invited to US to discuss the Kurdish issue] ekurd.net, 12 May 2012
In May 2012, a delegation of the [[Kurdish National Council of Syria]] (KNCS), a coalition of ten Syrian-Kurdish parties established in October 2011, was invited to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] for talks. Amongst others the delegation met [[Robert Stephen Ford|Robert Ford]], the former [[US Ambassador to Syria|U.S. ambassador to Syria]].<ref>[http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/5/syriakurd497.htm Kurdish National Council of Syria KNCS invited to US to discuss the Kurdish issue] ekurd.net, 12 May 2012</ref>


The reaction of Palestinians in Syria has been mixed: many just want to stay out of the situation, some (particularly younger people) have actively supported the protests, but the [[PFLP]] is widely accused of actively supporting the repression (Assad has sheltered the group for years). Due to this, six Palestinian officers were assassinated between January and June 2012.{{cite news |last1= Nordland |first1= Rod |last2= Mawad |first2= Dalal |date= 30 June 2012 |title= Palestinians in Syria Are Reluctantly Drawn Into Vortex of Uprising |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/01/world/middleeast/palestinians-in-syria-drawn-into-the-violence.html |publisher= NYTimes.com |accessdate= 1 July 2012 }} Another 17 Palestinian soldiers were abducted by the rebels in late June 2012,[http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2012/06/28/248413/rebels-kidnap-14-palestinians-in-syria/ Armed rebels abduct 14 Palestinian Liberation Army members in Syria] and their mutilated bodies were discovered almost two weeks later.[http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-07/11/c_131709599.htm 16 Palestinian soldiers found killed, mutilated in northern Syria][http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/46391-syria-s-pla-condemns-killing-of-17-soldiers Syria's PLA Condemns Killing of 17 Soldiers]
The reaction of Palestinians in Syria has been mixed: many just want to stay out of the situation, some (particularly younger people) have actively supported the protests, but the [[PFLP]] is widely accused of actively supporting the repression (Assad has sheltered the group for years). Due to this, six Palestinian officers were assassinated between January and June 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Nordland |first1= Rod |last2= Mawad |first2= Dalal |date= 30 June 2012 |title= Palestinians in Syria Are Reluctantly Drawn Into Vortex of Uprising |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/01/world/middleeast/palestinians-in-syria-drawn-into-the-violence.html |publisher= NYTimes.com |accessdate= 1 July 2012 }}</ref> Another 17 Palestinian soldiers were abducted by the rebels in late June 2012,<ref>[http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2012/06/28/248413/rebels-kidnap-14-palestinians-in-syria/ Armed rebels abduct 14 Palestinian Liberation Army members in Syria]</ref> and their mutilated bodies were discovered almost two weeks later.<ref name=PLA>[http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-07/11/c_131709599.htm 16 Palestinian soldiers found killed, mutilated in northern Syria]</ref><ref>[http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/46391-syria-s-pla-condemns-killing-of-17-soldiers Syria's PLA Condemns Killing of 17 Soldiers]</ref>


===Shabiha===
===Shabiha===
{{main|Shabiha}}
{{main|Shabiha}}
''Shabiha'' ({{lang-ar|الشبيحة}}; from the word شبح "ghost") have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad’s regime";{{cite news|url=http://www.tnr.com/article/world/93286/syria-assad-shabbiha-sectarianism|title=Assad’s Devious, Cruel Plan to Stay in Power By Dividing Syria—And Why It’s Working|first=Oliver|last=Holmes |date=15 August 2011|work=TNR}} "gunmen loyal to Assad";{{cite news|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/04/us-syria-assad-alawites-idUSTRE7433X620110504|title=Analysis: Assad retrenches into Alawite power base|date=4 May 2011}} "semi-criminal gangs {{sic|hide=y|comprised| of}} thugs close to the regime." Some "shabiha" operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunni, however.{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46252600/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.TywK9iMVm_s |title=Uprising finally hits Syria's "Silk Road" city |work=MSNBC |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}} [[Bassel al-Assad]] is reported to have created the secretive militia for the government in times of when it was in crisis.{{cite web|author=|url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=20120515124158 |title=Bashar Al-Assad’s transformation |publisher=Saudi Gazette |date=2012-05-15 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}
''Shabiha'' ({{lang-ar|الشبيحة}}; from the word شبح "ghost") have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad’s regime";<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tnr.com/article/world/93286/syria-assad-shabbiha-sectarianism|title=Assad’s Devious, Cruel Plan to Stay in Power By Dividing Syria—And Why It’s Working|first=Oliver|last=Holmes |date=15 August 2011|work=TNR}}</ref> "gunmen loyal to Assad";<ref name=r452011>{{cite news|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/04/us-syria-assad-alawites-idUSTRE7433X620110504|title=Analysis: Assad retrenches into Alawite power base|date=4 May 2011}}</ref> "semi-criminal gangs {{sic|hide=y|comprised| of}} thugs close to the regime."<ref name=r452011/> Some "shabiha" operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunni, however.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46252600/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.TywK9iMVm_s |title=Uprising finally hits Syria's "Silk Road" city |work=MSNBC |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> [[Bassel al-Assad]] is reported to have created the secretive militia for the government in times of when it was in crisis.<ref>{{cite web|author=|url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=20120515124158 |title=Bashar Al-Assad’s transformation |publisher=Saudi Gazette |date=2012-05-15 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}</ref>


According to a Syrian citizen, ''shabiha'' is a term that was used to refer to gangs involved in smuggling during the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]]: "They used to travel in ghost cars without plates; that's how they got the name Shabbiha. They would smuggle cars from Lebanon to Syria. The police turned a blind eye, and in return Shabbiha would act as a shadow militia in case of need".{{cite web|title=The Two Homs: On the ground with critics—and supporters—of Bashar al-Assad's regime|date=8 June 2011|publisher=Harper's Magazine}} Witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region say that the shabiha have been intimately involved in the killing, looting and destruction.{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/15/us-syria-idUSTRE78D3HV20110915|title=Armored Syrian forces storm towns near Turkey border|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis|agency=Reuters|date=15 September 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|location=Amman}}
According to a Syrian citizen, ''shabiha'' is a term that was used to refer to gangs involved in smuggling during the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]]: "They used to travel in ghost cars without plates; that's how they got the name Shabbiha. They would smuggle cars from Lebanon to Syria. The police turned a blind eye, and in return Shabbiha would act as a shadow militia in case of need".<ref name=Harpers>{{cite web|title=The Two Homs: On the ground with critics—and supporters—of Bashar al-Assad's regime|date=8 June 2011|publisher=Harper's Magazine}}</ref> Witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region say that the shabiha have been intimately involved in the killing, looting and destruction.<ref name=Harpers/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/15/us-syria-idUSTRE78D3HV20110915|title=Armored Syrian forces storm towns near Turkey border|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis|agency=Reuters|date=15 September 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|location=Amman}}</ref>


===Sectarianism===
===Sectarianism===
{{Main|Sectarianism in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
{{Main|Sectarianism in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
At the uprising's outset, some protesters reportedly chanted "Christians to Beirut; Alawites to the coffin".{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1103997.htm |title= Mideast church leaders worried about Christians if Syria has civil war |work=Catholic News |accessdate=13 November 2011}}{{cite web|first=Cliff|last=May |url=http://townhall.com/columnists/cliffmay/2011/07/21/the_great_alawite_hope |title=The Great Alawite Hope|work=Townhall |date=21 July 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}} While many in the opposition view the conflict as a sectarian one, some have accused the government of fomenting sectarianism;{{cite news|first=Cliff|last=May |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2097761,00.html |title=Syrian Refugees: Itching for a Fight with Assad and His Regime |work=Time magazine |date=25 October 2011 |accessdate=28 December 2011}} In a ''[[TIME]]'' report, an anti-Assad activist claimed that the Syrian government had paid government workers to write anti-Alawite graffiti and chant sectarian slogans at opposition rallies.{{cite news| url=http://globalspin.blogs.time.com/2012/03/01/eyewitness-from-homs-an-alawite-refugee-warns-of-sectarian-war-in-syria/|title=Eyewitness from Homs: An Alawite Refugee Warns of Sectarian War in Syria|first=Aryn|last=Baker|work=Time|date=1 March 2012|accessdate=24 April 2012}} Alawites who have taken refugee in Lebanon have also told journalists that they were offered money by the Syrian government to spread sectarianism through chants and graffiti.
At the uprising's outset, some protesters reportedly chanted "Christians to Beirut; Alawites to the coffin".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1103997.htm |title= Mideast church leaders worried about Christians if Syria has civil war |work=Catholic News |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Cliff|last=May |url=http://townhall.com/columnists/cliffmay/2011/07/21/the_great_alawite_hope |title=The Great Alawite Hope|work=Townhall |date=21 July 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> While many in the opposition view the conflict as a sectarian one, some have accused the government of fomenting sectarianism;<ref>{{cite news|first=Cliff|last=May |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2097761,00.html |title=Syrian Refugees: Itching for a Fight with Assad and His Regime |work=Time magazine |date=25 October 2011 |accessdate=28 December 2011}}</ref> In a ''[[TIME]]'' report, an anti-Assad activist claimed that the Syrian government had paid government workers to write anti-Alawite graffiti and chant sectarian slogans at opposition rallies.<ref name=timewar>{{cite news| url=http://globalspin.blogs.time.com/2012/03/01/eyewitness-from-homs-an-alawite-refugee-warns-of-sectarian-war-in-syria/|title=Eyewitness from Homs: An Alawite Refugee Warns of Sectarian War in Syria|first=Aryn|last=Baker|work=Time|date=1 March 2012|accessdate=24 April 2012}}</ref> Alawites who have taken refugee in Lebanon have also told journalists that they were offered money by the Syrian government to spread sectarianism through chants and graffiti.<ref name=timewar/>


===Foreign involvement===
===Foreign involvement===
The Syrian conflict has been interpreted as part of a proxy war between Sunni states such as Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar, who support the Sunni-led opposition, and Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah in Lebanon, who support the Alawite-led government in Syria.{{cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/02/the-global-dangers-of-syrias-looming-civil-war/252988/ |title=The Global Dangers of Syria's Looming Civil War|first=James|last=Kitfield|work=The Atlantic |date=16 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}}{{cite web|last=Cooke |first=Shamus |url=http://globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=28957 |title=Proxy War in Syria Threatens Catastrophe for the Middle East |publisher=Global Research |accessdate=22 February 2012}} Israeli reactions have been mixed, with some believing regime change in Syria would weaken their enemy Iran,{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/08/opinion/to-weaken-iran-start-with-syria.html|title=Iran’s Achilles’ Heel|work=The New York Times|date=7 February 2012|accessdate=22 February 2012|first=Efraim|last=Halevy|location=Jerusalem}} and others believing a post-Assad Syria might be more dangerous for the Jewish State.{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/30/world/la-fg-israel-syria-20110331 |title=Israel and Syria unrest: Israel quietly roots for Bashar Assad to retain power in Syria|work=Los Angeles Times|date=30 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012|first=Edmund|last=Sanders}} Former [[Mossad]] chief [[Efraim Halevy]] has suggested that Israel should exploit the Shia-Sunni conflict.{{cite news|last=Sanders |first=Edmund |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-israel-syria-qa-20120219,0,2382385.story |title=Israel's ex-spy chief sees opportunity in Syria crisis |work=Los Angeles Times|date=18 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}} Eventually, well into the Syrian uprising, Isreal decided to support the Syrian rebels and called for a regime change in Syria. The president, Shimon Peres, said that the international community is not doing enough to stop the violence, and he urged the West to intervene. The Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu said that an "axis of evil" is behind the atrocities in Syria. Netanyahu told the Cabinet that Iran and the militant group Hezbollah in Lebanon are assisting the Syrian government in the massacre of civilians.{{cite web|author=Robert Berger |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/israel_condemns_violence_in_syria/1205574.html |title=Israel Condemns Violence in Syria |publisher=Voanews.com |date=2012-06-10 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
The Syrian conflict has been interpreted as part of a proxy war between Sunni states such as Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar, who support the Sunni-led opposition, and Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah in Lebanon, who support the Alawite-led government in Syria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/02/the-global-dangers-of-syrias-looming-civil-war/252988/ |title=The Global Dangers of Syria's Looming Civil War|first=James|last=Kitfield|work=The Atlantic |date=16 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cooke |first=Shamus |url=http://globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=28957 |title=Proxy War in Syria Threatens Catastrophe for the Middle East |publisher=Global Research |accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref> Israeli reactions have been mixed, with some believing regime change in Syria would weaken their enemy Iran,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/08/opinion/to-weaken-iran-start-with-syria.html|title=Iran’s Achilles’ Heel|work=The New York Times|date=7 February 2012|accessdate=22 February 2012|first=Efraim|last=Halevy|location=Jerusalem}}</ref> and others believing a post-Assad Syria might be more dangerous for the Jewish State.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/30/world/la-fg-israel-syria-20110331 |title=Israel and Syria unrest: Israel quietly roots for Bashar Assad to retain power in Syria|work=Los Angeles Times|date=30 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012|first=Edmund|last=Sanders}}</ref> Former [[Mossad]] chief [[Efraim Halevy]] has suggested that Israel should exploit the Shia-Sunni conflict.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sanders |first=Edmund |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-israel-syria-qa-20120219,0,2382385.story |title=Israel's ex-spy chief sees opportunity in Syria crisis |work=Los Angeles Times|date=18 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref> Eventually, well into the Syrian uprising, Isreal decided to support the Syrian rebels and called for a regime change in Syria. The president, Shimon Peres, said that the international community is not doing enough to stop the violence, and he urged the West to intervene. The Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu said that an "axis of evil" is behind the atrocities in Syria. Netanyahu told the Cabinet that Iran and the militant group Hezbollah in Lebanon are assisting the Syrian government in the massacre of civilians.<ref>{{cite web|author=Robert Berger |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/israel_condemns_violence_in_syria/1205574.html |title=Israel Condemns Violence in Syria |publisher=Voanews.com |date=2012-06-10 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>


In February 2012 [[Foreign Minister of Germany|German Foreign Minister]] [[Guido Westerwelle]] warned that a [[proxy war]] in Syria could "cause a confrontation that drags in even Moscow and Beijing".[http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/syrienkonflikt-westerwelle-warnt-vor-flaechenbrand-in-der-region/6255440.html Syrienkonflikt: Westerwelle warnt vor Flächenbrand in der Region] in [[Der Tagesspiegel|Tagesspiegel]], 26 February 2012. Before his departure to the [[38th G8 summit|2012 G8 Summit]] the [[Prime Minister of Russia|Russian Prime Minister]] [[Dmitry Medvedev]] warned, that "actions, which undermine state sovereignty" may well end in "a full-blown regional war" and even the "use of nuclear weapons".[http://en.rian.ru/russia/20120517/173506862.html Medvedev Warns of ‘Full-Blown Wars’] [[RIA Novosti]], 17 May 2012 Syrian state institutions are regime-centred,{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 20 March 2012 |title= Preparing for Failure in Syria |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137339/daniel-byman/preparing-for-failure-in-syria |publisher= ForeignAffairs.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} thus another Brookings scholar, citing post-invasion Iraq, cautioned against the goal of an immediate purge of all Baathists.{{cite web |last= Rabinovich |first= Itamar |date= 2 May 2012 |title= The Anarchy Factor in Syria |url= http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2012/05/02-syria-anarchy-rabinovich |publisher= Brookings Institution |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }}
In February 2012 [[Foreign Minister of Germany|German Foreign Minister]] [[Guido Westerwelle]] warned that a [[proxy war]] in Syria could "cause a confrontation that drags in even Moscow and Beijing".<ref>[http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/syrienkonflikt-westerwelle-warnt-vor-flaechenbrand-in-der-region/6255440.html Syrienkonflikt: Westerwelle warnt vor Flächenbrand in der Region] in [[Der Tagesspiegel|Tagesspiegel]], 26 February 2012.</ref> Before his departure to the [[38th G8 summit|2012 G8 Summit]] the [[Prime Minister of Russia|Russian Prime Minister]] [[Dmitry Medvedev]] warned, that "actions, which undermine state sovereignty" may well end in "a full-blown regional war" and even the "use of nuclear weapons".<ref>[http://en.rian.ru/russia/20120517/173506862.html Medvedev Warns of ‘Full-Blown Wars’] [[RIA Novosti]], 17 May 2012</ref> Syrian state institutions are regime-centred,<ref>{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 20 March 2012 |title= Preparing for Failure in Syria |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137339/daniel-byman/preparing-for-failure-in-syria |publisher= ForeignAffairs.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> thus another Brookings scholar, citing post-invasion Iraq, cautioned against the goal of an immediate purge of all Baathists.<ref name = "anarchy">{{cite web |last= Rabinovich |first= Itamar |date= 2 May 2012 |title= The Anarchy Factor in Syria |url= http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2012/05/02-syria-anarchy-rabinovich |publisher= Brookings Institution |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }}</ref>


[[Reuters]] suggested that the prospect of British special forces entering Syria on the ground is growing, following unconfirmed reports from an Israeli website that [[SAS]] [[Commando]]s were conducting covert operations within Syrian territory, operating from Turkey on 26 June 2012.{{cite news|last=Epps |first=Peter |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/06/27/uk-syria-escalation-idUKBRE85Q11C20120627 |title=Analysis: Syria's Assad faces growing rebel, foreign threat |work=Reuters UK|agency=Reuters|date=27 June 2012 |accessdate=29 June 2012}} In July 2012, Switzerland ceased arms exports to the UAE after it emerged Swiss weapons were finding their way to opposition fighters.{{cite news |title= Switzerland halts arms exports to U.A.E., as report says Swiss arms used by Syria rebels |url= http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/switzerland-halts-arms-exports-to-u-a-e-as-report-says-swiss-arms-used-by-syria-rebels-1.449022 |newspaper= Haaretz |date= 5 July 2012 |accessdate= 5 July 2012 }} The Swiss decision came shortly after the UN human rights chief, Navi Pillay, called for an urgent stop to arms transfers to government and opposition forces so as to avoid "further militarisation" of the conflict.{{cite web |title= UN rights chief Navi Pillay plea on Syria weapons |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18683208 |publisher= BBC News |date= 2 July 2012 |accessdate= 5 July 2012 }} The director of the [[Saban Center for Middle East Policy]] had previously argued that, while "uncontrolled militarization will turn the Syrian uprising into a wider conflict that could draw in jihadis and other extremists from across the Muslim World", militarisation was inevitable, and so the US should help facilitate and guide it.{{cite web |last= Cofman Wittes |first= Tamara |date= 19 April 2012 |title= Options for U.S. Policy in Syria |url= http://www.brookings.edu/research/testimony/2012/04/19-syria-wittes |work= Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee |publisher= [[Brookings Institution]] |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }} [[Marc Lynch]] argued the opposite in February 2012, as the provision of weapons from Saudi Arabia and Qatar was being mooted: "It is unlikely that arms from the outside would come close to evening the balance of power, and would only invite escalations from Syrian regime forces".{{cite web |last= Lynch |first= Marc |date= 21 February 2012 |title= Helping Syria Without War |url= http://lynch.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/02/20/helping_syria_without_war |work= Abu Aardvark's Middle East Blog |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} Lynch was correct: according to the Syrian National Council, the increasingly fierce air and artillery assaults by the government after March 2012 were intended to counter the improved weaponry, coordination and tactics among the opposition forces that arrived from Arab states via Turkey and US facilitation; in June, Amnesty International said the fighting during spring had escalated to "the level and intensity of a non-international
[[Reuters]] suggested that the prospect of British special forces entering Syria on the ground is growing, following unconfirmed reports from an Israeli website that [[SAS]] [[Commando]]s were conducting covert operations within Syrian territory, operating from Turkey on 26 June 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Epps |first=Peter |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/06/27/uk-syria-escalation-idUKBRE85Q11C20120627 |title=Analysis: Syria's Assad faces growing rebel, foreign threat |work=Reuters UK|agency=Reuters|date=27 June 2012 |accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref> In July 2012, Switzerland ceased arms exports to the UAE after it emerged Swiss weapons were finding their way to opposition fighters.<ref>{{cite news |title= Switzerland halts arms exports to U.A.E., as report says Swiss arms used by Syria rebels |url= http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/switzerland-halts-arms-exports-to-u-a-e-as-report-says-swiss-arms-used-by-syria-rebels-1.449022 |newspaper= Haaretz |date= 5 July 2012 |accessdate= 5 July 2012 }}</ref> The Swiss decision came shortly after the UN human rights chief, Navi Pillay, called for an urgent stop to arms transfers to government and opposition forces so as to avoid "further militarisation" of the conflict.<ref>{{cite web |title= UN rights chief Navi Pillay plea on Syria weapons |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18683208 |publisher= BBC News |date= 2 July 2012 |accessdate= 5 July 2012 }}</ref> The director of the [[Saban Center for Middle East Policy]] had previously argued that, while "uncontrolled militarization will turn the Syrian uprising into a wider conflict that could draw in jihadis and other extremists from across the Muslim World", militarisation was inevitable, and so the US should help facilitate and guide it.<ref name = "testimony sfrc">{{cite web |last= Cofman Wittes |first= Tamara |date= 19 April 2012 |title= Options for U.S. Policy in Syria |url= http://www.brookings.edu/research/testimony/2012/04/19-syria-wittes |work= Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee |publisher= [[Brookings Institution]] |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }}</ref> [[Marc Lynch]] argued the opposite in February 2012, as the provision of weapons from Saudi Arabia and Qatar was being mooted: "It is unlikely that arms from the outside would come close to evening the balance of power, and would only invite escalations from Syrian regime forces".<ref name="Lynch invite">{{cite web |last= Lynch |first= Marc |date= 21 February 2012 |title= Helping Syria Without War |url= http://lynch.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/02/20/helping_syria_without_war |work= Abu Aardvark's Middle East Blog |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> Lynch was correct: according to the Syrian National Council, the increasingly fierce air and artillery assaults by the government after March 2012 were intended to counter the improved weaponry, coordination and tactics among the opposition forces that arrived from Arab states via Turkey and US facilitation;<ref name=Schmitt/> in June, Amnesty International said the fighting during spring had escalated to "the level and intensity of a non-international
armed conflict",{{rp|10}} while the UN's head of peacekeeping, Herve Ladsous said the country was now in a state of "civil war";{{cite web |title= Syria in civil war, says UN official Herve Ladsous |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18417952 |publisher= BBC News |date= 12 June 2012 |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} and in July, the head of the UN monitoring mission to Syria, General Robert Mood, warned that violence was reaching an "unprecedented level", as EU foreign policy chief, Catherine Ashton, noted the level of violence and number of casualties had risen to "unimaginable levels" over previous weeks.{{cite web |title= EU: Syria Risks Slipping Into Civil War |url= http://www.rttnews.com/1918325/eu-syria-risks-slipping-into-civil-war.aspx |publisher= RTTNews |date= 6 July 2012 |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} At a conference in Paris shortly afterward, Western and Sunni Arab countries nonetheless announced they were going to "massively increase" aid to the Syrian opposition.{{cite news |last1= Nakhoul |first1= Samia |last2= Vinocur |first2= Nicholas |date= 6 July 2012 |title= Friend flees Assad as U.S. pressures Russia |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/06/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE8610SH20120706 |agency= Retuers |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} Opposition violence has reportedly alarmed some of the peaceful protesters and activists who first drove the uprising.{{cite web |last= Peel |first= Michael |date= 5 July 2012 |title= Syria opposition chooses its battles |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/29a71442-c521-11e1-b6fd-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}
armed conflict",<ref name = "deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|10}} while the UN's head of peacekeeping, Herve Ladsous said the country was now in a state of "civil war";<ref>{{cite web |title= Syria in civil war, says UN official Herve Ladsous |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18417952 |publisher= BBC News |date= 12 June 2012 |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> and in July, the head of the UN monitoring mission to Syria, General Robert Mood, warned that violence was reaching an "unprecedented level",<ref name = "influx"/> as EU foreign policy chief, Catherine Ashton, noted the level of violence and number of casualties had risen to "unimaginable levels" over previous weeks.<ref>{{cite web |title= EU: Syria Risks Slipping Into Civil War |url= http://www.rttnews.com/1918325/eu-syria-risks-slipping-into-civil-war.aspx |publisher= RTTNews |date= 6 July 2012 |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> At a conference in Paris shortly afterward, Western and Sunni Arab countries nonetheless announced they were going to "massively increase" aid to the Syrian opposition.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Nakhoul |first1= Samia |last2= Vinocur |first2= Nicholas |date= 6 July 2012 |title= Friend flees Assad as U.S. pressures Russia |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/06/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE8610SH20120706 |agency= Retuers |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> Opposition violence has reportedly alarmed some of the peaceful protesters and activists who first drove the uprising.<ref>{{cite web |last= Peel |first= Michael |date= 5 July 2012 |title= Syria opposition chooses its battles |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/29a71442-c521-11e1-b6fd-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref>


====Support for the opposition====
====Support for the opposition====
[[Turkey]] provided refuge for Syrian dissidents. Syrian opposition activists convened in Istanbul in May to discuss regime change,{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20110531-syria-middle-east-opposition-groups-turkey-assad-revolution-arab-spring|title=Syrian dissidents convene in Turkey to discuss regime change|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=1 June 2011|accessdate=20 October 2011|work=France 24}} and Turkey hosts the head of the Free Syrian Army, Colonel Riad al-Asaad.{{cite news|last=Karam|first=Zeina|title=Syrian dissident colonel takes refuge in Turkey|work=The Guardian|location=Beirut|agency=Associated Press|date=5 October 2011|accessdate=20 October 2011|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/9880236}}{{cite news |last=Stack |first=Liam |title=In Slap at Syria, Turkey Shelters Anti-Assad Fighters|work=New York Times |date=27 October 2011 |accessdate=27 October 2011 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/28/world/europe/turkey-is-sheltering-antigovernment-syrian-militia.html}} Turkey has become increasingly hostile to the Assad government's policies, has encouraged reconciliation among dissident factions. Beginning in May 2012, some Syrian opposition fighters began being armed and trained by the [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|Turkish Intelligence]].{{cite web |last= Weiss |first= Michael |date= 22 May 2012 |title= Syrian rebels say Turkey is arming and training them |url= http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/100159613/syrian-rebels-say-turkey-is-arming-and-training-them/ |publisher= [[The Telegraph (UK)|telegraph.co.uk]] |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}
[[Turkey]] provided refuge for Syrian dissidents. Syrian opposition activists convened in Istanbul in May to discuss regime change,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20110531-syria-middle-east-opposition-groups-turkey-assad-revolution-arab-spring|title=Syrian dissidents convene in Turkey to discuss regime change|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=1 June 2011|accessdate=20 October 2011|work=France 24}}</ref> and Turkey hosts the head of the Free Syrian Army, Colonel Riad al-Asaad.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karam|first=Zeina|title=Syrian dissident colonel takes refuge in Turkey|work=The Guardian|location=Beirut|agency=Associated Press|date=5 October 2011|accessdate=20 October 2011|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/9880236}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Stack |first=Liam |title=In Slap at Syria, Turkey Shelters Anti-Assad Fighters|work=New York Times |date=27 October 2011 |accessdate=27 October 2011 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/28/world/europe/turkey-is-sheltering-antigovernment-syrian-militia.html}}</ref> Turkey has become increasingly hostile to the Assad government's policies, has encouraged reconciliation among dissident factions. Beginning in May 2012, some Syrian opposition fighters began being armed and trained by the [[National Intelligence Organization (Turkey)|Turkish Intelligence]].<ref>{{cite web |last= Weiss |first= Michael |date= 22 May 2012 |title= Syrian rebels say Turkey is arming and training them |url= http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/100159613/syrian-rebels-say-turkey-is-arming-and-training-them/ |publisher= [[The Telegraph (UK)|telegraph.co.uk]] |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref>


Some countries have cut ties with the Assad government including: the Gulf States, Libya, Tunisia,{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/04/us-syria-tunisia-flag-idUSTRE8130IF20120204 | work=Reuters | title=Tunisia "to withdraw recognition" of Syria government | date=4 February 2012}} Britain, Spain, Turkey, the United States and Belgium.{{cite news|last=Bar |first=Zvi |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/assad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789 |title=Assad takes a page out of Russia's book in his war against rebels |work=Haaretz |date=30 January 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}} Canada has closed its visa office but maintains an embassy in Damascus.{{cite web|url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/syria-syrie/highlights-faits/2012/syria_crisis-crise_syrie2.aspx|title=Canada Reduces Staff at Embassy in Syria |publisher=Canada International|accessdate=16 February 2012}}
Some countries have cut ties with the Assad government including: the Gulf States, Libya, Tunisia,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/04/us-syria-tunisia-flag-idUSTRE8130IF20120204 | work=Reuters | title=Tunisia "to withdraw recognition" of Syria government | date=4 February 2012}}</ref> Britain, Spain, Turkey, the United States and Belgium.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bar |first=Zvi |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/assad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789 |title=Assad takes a page out of Russia's book in his war against rebels |work=Haaretz |date=30 January 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> Canada has closed its visa office but maintains an embassy in Damascus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/syria-syrie/highlights-faits/2012/syria_crisis-crise_syrie2.aspx|title=Canada Reduces Staff at Embassy in Syria |publisher=Canada International|accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref>


On 1 November, [[NATO]] said it had no intention of taking military action in Syria, after it closed its [[2011 military intervention in Libya|seven-month campaign]] in Libya.{{cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/NATO-Rules-Out-Syria-Action-132982888.html |title=NATO Rules Out Syria Action|work=Voice of America |date=1 November 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}
On 1 November, [[NATO]] said it had no intention of taking military action in Syria, after it closed its [[2011 military intervention in Libya|seven-month campaign]] in Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/NATO-Rules-Out-Syria-Action-132982888.html |title=NATO Rules Out Syria Action|work=Voice of America |date=1 November 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref>


Sunni [[Islamism|Islamist]] group [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] has voiced its support for the Syrian opposition,{{cite web |url= http://www.hizb.org.uk/dawah/hizb-ut-tahrir-syria-calls-on-armed-forces-to-remove-regime-and-establish-khilafah |title= Hizb ut Tahrir Syria calls on armed forces to remove regime and establish Khilafah |publisher= Hizb ut-Tahrir |date= 19 February 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} as has [[Hamas]] prime minister of [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], [[Ismail Haniya]],{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/25/world/middleeast/hamas-leader-supports-syrian-opposition.html | work=The New York Times | first=Fares | last=Akram | title=Hamas Supports Syrian Opposition | date=24 February 2012}} though Hamas leader Salah al-Bardaweel added that this does not mean severance of ties with the Assad government.{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/line/2012-02-25/#id27067 |title=Hamas denies rupture of diplomatic relations with Syria|work=Russia Today |date=25 February 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}} Bardaweel's claims are at odds with repeated leaks by his group showing that they were prepared to evacuate Syria and had already reduced their presence there.{{cite web |last= Holliday |first= Joseph |date= 15 December 2011 |title= ISW in brief: Hamas to abandon Syria, Iran |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/otherwork/isw-brief-hamas-abandon-syria-iran |publisher= Institute for the Study of War |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }} The Syrian branch of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] provided active assistance.
Sunni [[Islamism|Islamist]] group [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] has voiced its support for the Syrian opposition,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hizb.org.uk/dawah/hizb-ut-tahrir-syria-calls-on-armed-forces-to-remove-regime-and-establish-khilafah |title= Hizb ut Tahrir Syria calls on armed forces to remove regime and establish Khilafah |publisher= Hizb ut-Tahrir |date= 19 February 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> as has [[Hamas]] prime minister of [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], [[Ismail Haniya]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/25/world/middleeast/hamas-leader-supports-syrian-opposition.html | work=The New York Times | first=Fares | last=Akram | title=Hamas Supports Syrian Opposition | date=24 February 2012}}</ref> though Hamas leader Salah al-Bardaweel added that this does not mean severance of ties with the Assad government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/line/2012-02-25/#id27067 |title=Hamas denies rupture of diplomatic relations with Syria|work=Russia Today |date=25 February 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Bardaweel's claims are at odds with repeated leaks by his group showing that they were prepared to evacuate Syria and had already reduced their presence there.<ref>{{cite web |last= Holliday |first= Joseph |date= 15 December 2011 |title= ISW in brief: Hamas to abandon Syria, Iran |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/otherwork/isw-brief-hamas-abandon-syria-iran |publisher= Institute for the Study of War |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref> The Syrian branch of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] provided active assistance.<ref name=Schmitt/>


[[Al-Qaeda]] and affiliates are anti-Assad. American officials believe that [[Al-Qaeda in Iraq]] has conducted bomb attacks against government forces,{{cite news|last=Landay |first=Jonathan S. |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/02/16/139139/top-us-intelligence-officials.html |title=Top U.S. intelligence officials confirm al Qaida role in Syria|work=McClatchy Newspapers|accessdate=22 February 2012}} and al-Qaeda leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] condemned Assad.{{cite news|first=Elizabeth A.|last=Kennedy|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/12/ayman-al-zawahri-al-qaeda_n_1271410.html |title=Ayman al-Zawahri, Al-Qaeda Chief, Urges Muslims To Help Syrian Rebels |work=Huffington Post |accessdate=22 February 2012 |date=12 February 2012}} On 23 April, one of the leaders of [[Fatah al-Islam]], Abdel Ghani Jawhar, was killed during the [[Battle of Al-Qusayr]], after he blew himself up while making a bomb.{{cite web|url=http://www.yalibnan.com/2012/04/23/lebanons-most-wanted-sunni-terrorist-blows-himself-up-in-syria/ |title=Lebanon's Most Wanted Sunni Terrorist Blows Himself Up in Syria |location=LB |publisher=Yalibnan.com |date=2012-04-23 |accessdate=2012-05-17}} A member of the [[Abdullah Azzam Shaheed Brigade|Abdullah Azzam Brigades]] in Lebanon admitted that his group had sent fighters to Syria, while a group thought linked to al-Qaeda and calling itself the al-Nusra Front claimed for [[January 2012 al-Midan bombing|a suicide bomb attack]] on 6 January 2012 in the central Damascus neighbourhood of al-Midan killed 26 people, most of whom were civilians,{{cite news|url=http://rt.com/news/suicide-terror-damascus-blast-291/|title=Suicide attack kills and wounds dozens in Damascus|date=6 January 2012|accessdate=8 January 2012|work=[[Russia Today]]}} as well as for truck bombs that killed 55 people and injured 370. Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.{{cite news |last1= Macleod |first1= Hugh |last2= Flamand |first2= Annasofie |date= 13 May 2012 |title= Iraq-style chaos looms as foreign jihadists pour into Syria |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1037397.ece |newspaper= The Sunday Times |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} In May 2012, Syria's U.N. envoy Bashar Ja'afari declared that dozens of foreign fighters from Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Britain, France elsewhere had been captured or killed, and urged Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey to stop "their sponsorship of the armed rebellion".{{cite news|last=Yacoub |first=Khaled |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/09/us-syria-idUSBRE8470O020120509 |title=Syria rebels kill 7, bomb explodes near U.N. monitors |agency=Reuters|date=9 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}}{{cite web |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18109167 |title= Syria's UN ambassador says two Britons killed in Idlib |publisher= BBC News |date= 17 May 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012. In June, it was reported that hundreds of foreign fighters, many linked to al-Qaeda, had gone to Syria to fight against Assad.{{cite news |last= Jaber |first= Hala |date= 17 June 2012 |title= Jihadists pour into Syrian slaughter |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1062478.ece |newspaper= The Sunday Times |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} In July, Iraq's foreign minister again warned that members of al-Qaeda in Iraq were seeking refuge in Syria and moving there to fight.{{cite web |last1= Peel |first1= Michael |last2= Fielding-Smith |first2= Abigail |date= 5 July 2012 |title= Iraq warns over al-Qaeda flux to Syria |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c776cfd6-c6bc-11e1-943a-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }} When asked if the United States would arm the opposition, Hillary Clinton expressed fears that such weapons could fall into the hands of al-Qaeda or Hamas.{{cite web|last=Andrews|first=Wyatt|date=26 February 2012|title=Hillary Clinton: Assad regime dishonors Syria|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57385418-503543/hillary-clinton-assad-regime-dishonors-syria/|work=WorldWatch|publisher=CBSNews.com|accessdate=24 June 2012}}
[[Al-Qaeda]] and affiliates are anti-Assad. American officials believe that [[Al-Qaeda in Iraq]] has conducted bomb attacks against government forces,<ref>{{cite news|last=Landay |first=Jonathan S. |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/02/16/139139/top-us-intelligence-officials.html |title=Top U.S. intelligence officials confirm al Qaida role in Syria|work=McClatchy Newspapers|accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref> and al-Qaeda leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] condemned Assad.<ref>{{cite news|first=Elizabeth A.|last=Kennedy|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/12/ayman-al-zawahri-al-qaeda_n_1271410.html |title=Ayman al-Zawahri, Al-Qaeda Chief, Urges Muslims To Help Syrian Rebels |work=Huffington Post |accessdate=22 February 2012 |date=12 February 2012}}</ref> On 23 April, one of the leaders of [[Fatah al-Islam]], Abdel Ghani Jawhar, was killed during the [[Battle of Al-Qusayr]], after he blew himself up while making a bomb.<ref name=fatahalsislm>{{cite web|url=http://www.yalibnan.com/2012/04/23/lebanons-most-wanted-sunni-terrorist-blows-himself-up-in-syria/ |title=Lebanon's Most Wanted Sunni Terrorist Blows Himself Up in Syria |location=LB |publisher=Yalibnan.com |date=2012-04-23 |accessdate=2012-05-17}}</ref> A member of the [[Abdullah Azzam Shaheed Brigade|Abdullah Azzam Brigades]] in Lebanon admitted that his group had sent fighters to Syria, while a group thought linked to al-Qaeda and calling itself the al-Nusra Front claimed for [[January 2012 al-Midan bombing|a suicide bomb attack]] on 6 January 2012 in the central Damascus neighbourhood of al-Midan killed 26 people, most of whom were civilians,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://rt.com/news/suicide-terror-damascus-blast-291/|title=Suicide attack kills and wounds dozens in Damascus|date=6 January 2012|accessdate=8 January 2012|work=[[Russia Today]]}}</ref> as well as for truck bombs that killed 55 people and injured 370. Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.<ref name = "ST Forn 1">{{cite news |last1= Macleod |first1= Hugh |last2= Flamand |first2= Annasofie |date= 13 May 2012 |title= Iraq-style chaos looms as foreign jihadists pour into Syria |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1037397.ece |newspaper= The Sunday Times |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> In May 2012, Syria's U.N. envoy Bashar Ja'afari declared that dozens of foreign fighters from Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Britain, France elsewhere had been captured or killed, and urged Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey to stop "their sponsorship of the armed rebellion".<ref>{{cite news|last=Yacoub |first=Khaled |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/09/us-syria-idUSBRE8470O020120509 |title=Syria rebels kill 7, bomb explodes near U.N. monitors |agency=Reuters|date=9 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18109167 |title= Syria's UN ambassador says two Britons killed in Idlib |publisher= BBC News |date= 17 May 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.<ref name = "ST Forn 1"/> In June, it was reported that hundreds of foreign fighters, many linked to al-Qaeda, had gone to Syria to fight against Assad.<ref name = "ST Forn 2">{{cite news |last= Jaber |first= Hala |date= 17 June 2012 |title= Jihadists pour into Syrian slaughter |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1062478.ece |newspaper= The Sunday Times |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> In July, Iraq's foreign minister again warned that members of al-Qaeda in Iraq were seeking refuge in Syria and moving there to fight.<ref name = "influx">{{cite web |last1= Peel |first1= Michael |last2= Fielding-Smith |first2= Abigail |date= 5 July 2012 |title= Iraq warns over al-Qaeda flux to Syria |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c776cfd6-c6bc-11e1-943a-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 7 July 2012 }}</ref> When asked if the United States would arm the opposition, Hillary Clinton expressed fears that such weapons could fall into the hands of al-Qaeda or Hamas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Andrews|first=Wyatt|date=26 February 2012|title=Hillary Clinton: Assad regime dishonors Syria|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57385418-503543/hillary-clinton-assad-regime-dishonors-syria/|work=WorldWatch|publisher=CBSNews.com|accessdate=24 June 2012}}</ref>


A crucial line of support began in spring 2012 as Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced they would begin arming and bankrolling the opposition.{{cite news|last=DeYoung|first=Karen|date=2 March 2012|title=Saudi, Qatari plans to arm Syrian rebels risk overtaking cautious approach favored by U.S.|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/saudi-qatari-plans-to-arm-syrian-rebels-risk-overtaking-cautious-approach-favored-by-us/2012/03/01/gIQArWQflR_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|accessdate=23 March 2012}}{{cite web |title= Syria says nearly 90% of voters approve new constitution amid bloodshed |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/02/27/197380.html |publisher= Al Arabiya News |date= 27 February 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}{{cite news |last= Naylor |first= Hugh |date= 17 May 2012 |title= Syria rebels 'buy arms with Gulf and US help'  |url= http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-buy-arms-with-gulf-and-us-help |newspaper= The National |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} Paul Salem, director of the Carnegie Middle East Centre in Beirut, and Emile Hokayem of the International Institute of Strategic Studies argued such support would be unlikely to immediately make a decisive impact.{{cite web |last1= Black |first1= Ian |last2= Borger |first2= Julian |date= 5 April 2012 |title= Gulf states warned against arming Syria rebels |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/apr/05/gulf-states-warning-arming-syria |publisher= guardian.co.uk |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} A ship carrying weapons from Libya believed destined for Syria's rebels has also been intercepted.{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120428-lebanon-intercepts-libyan-arms-ship-headed-syrian-rebels-weapons-navy-assad|title=Lebanon halts ship with arms 'destined for Syria' |date=28 April 2012|accessdate=29 April 2012|work=[[France 24]]}} According to SNC e-mails leaked to ''[[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]]'', Saudi support came with undesirable conditions attached, and played a negative, divisive role in Homs.{{cite web |title= SNC Emails: Clinton, Kilo, and Al-Farouq Batallion |url= http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/6921 |publisher= Al Akhar English |date= 3 May 2012 |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}
A crucial line of support began in spring 2012 as Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced they would begin arming and bankrolling the opposition.<ref>{{cite news|last=DeYoung|first=Karen|date=2 March 2012|title=Saudi, Qatari plans to arm Syrian rebels risk overtaking cautious approach favored by U.S.|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/saudi-qatari-plans-to-arm-syrian-rebels-risk-overtaking-cautious-approach-favored-by-us/2012/03/01/gIQArWQflR_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|accessdate=23 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Syria says nearly 90% of voters approve new constitution amid bloodshed |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/02/27/197380.html |publisher= Al Arabiya News |date= 27 February 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref><ref name = "Ntnl arms">{{cite news |last= Naylor |first= Hugh |date= 17 May 2012 |title= Syria rebels 'buy arms with Gulf and US help'&nbsp; |url= http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-buy-arms-with-gulf-and-us-help |newspaper= The National |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> Paul Salem, director of the Carnegie Middle East Centre in Beirut, and Emile Hokayem of the International Institute of Strategic Studies argued such support would be unlikely to immediately make a decisive impact.<ref name = "Ntnl arms"/><ref name = "Grdn arms">{{cite web |last1= Black |first1= Ian |last2= Borger |first2= Julian |date= 5 April 2012 |title= Gulf states warned against arming Syria rebels |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/apr/05/gulf-states-warning-arming-syria |publisher= guardian.co.uk |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> A ship carrying weapons from Libya believed destined for Syria's rebels has also been intercepted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120428-lebanon-intercepts-libyan-arms-ship-headed-syrian-rebels-weapons-navy-assad|title=Lebanon halts ship with arms 'destined for Syria'&nbsp;|date=28 April 2012|accessdate=29 April 2012|work=[[France 24]]}}</ref> According to SNC e-mails leaked to ''[[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]]'', Saudi support came with undesirable conditions attached, and played a negative, divisive role in Homs.<ref>{{cite web |title= SNC Emails: Clinton, Kilo, and Al-Farouq Batallion |url= http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/6921 |publisher= Al Akhar English |date= 3 May 2012 |accessdate= 10 July 2012 }}</ref>


In mid-April 2011, [[WikiLeaks]] revealed that the [[United States]] had secretly funnelled as much as $6 million to a London-based opposition group [[Movement for Justice and Development in Syria|Movement for Justice and Development]] since 2006 to operate the [[Barada TV]] satellite channel and finance other activities inside Syria.{{cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/us-secretly-backed-syrian-opposition-groups-cables-released-by-wikileaks-show/2011/04/14/AF1p9hwD_story.html | work=The Washington Post | title=U.S. secretly backed Syrian opposition groups, cables released by WikiLeaks show|date=18 April 2011 | first=Joel | last=Greenberg}} A report in the ''Washington Post'' in May 2012 described how the provision of military aid to opposition forces from Gulf states was being partly coordinated by the US.{{cite web|author=Karen DeYoung and Liz Sly |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/syrian-rebels-get-influx-of-arms-with-gulf-neighbors-money-us-coordination/2012/05/15/gIQAds2TSU_story.html |title=Syrian rebels get influx of arms with gulf neighbors' money, U.S. coordination |work=Washington Post|date=15 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}} A month later, the ''New York Times'' reported that the American involvement was being overseen by [[CIA]] officers in Turkey, and that the weapons provided included "automatic rifles, rocket-propelled grenades, ammunition and some antitank weapons". Part of the CIA's role was "helping to vet rebel groups" to ensure fighters allied with [[Al Qaeda]] or other terrorist groups were not benefiting from the flood of weaponry being provided and paid for by Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.{{cite news|last=Schmitt|first=Eric|date=21 June 2012|title=C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/21/world/middleeast/cia-said-to-aid-in-steering-arms-to-syrian-rebels.html|publisher=NYTimes.com|accessdate=23 June 2012}} The American vetting is partly an attempt to learn the lessons of assisting jihadi opposition groups in Afghanistan in the 1980s, which left a negative legacy of empowering radical Islamists that has lasted to the present day.{{cite web|last=Schanzer|first=Jonathan|date=27 February 2012|title=Saudi Arabia Is Arming the Syrian Opposition|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/02/27/saudi_arabia_is_arming_the_syrian_opposition|publisher=FP.com|accessdate=23 June 2012|quote=The last time the Saudis decided they had a moral obligation to scuttle Russian policies, they gave birth to a generation of jihadi fighters in Afghanistan who are still wreaking havoc three decades later.}} Elizabeth O'Bagy urged additional caution: "Facilitating weapon transfers to certain groups could empower militias at the expense of the grassroots political opposition. One key condition for future arms transfers should be that groups receiving weapons agree to submit to civilian command structures." US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta emphasised that, in contrast to others, his country was only providing facilitation and non-lethal support to the opposition.{{cite news|last=Stewart|first=Phil|date=22 June 2012|title=Not time to arm Syrians, Pentagon chief says|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/06/22/usa-panetta-syria-idINDEE85L04820120622|agency=Reuters|accessdate=23 June 2012}} A few days later, ''The Guardian'' reported plans by Saudi Arabia to pay the salaries of the Free Syrian Army via a command centre in Turkey, the aim being to encourage mass defections from the Syrian military.{{cite web|last1=Chulov|first1=Martin|last2=MacAskill|first2=Ewen|last3=Densky|first3=John|date=22 June 2012|title=Saudi Arabia plans to fund Syria rebel army|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/22/saudi-arabia-syria-rebel-army|publisher=guardian.co.uk|accessdate=23 June 2012}}
In mid-April 2011, [[WikiLeaks]] revealed that the [[United States]] had secretly funnelled as much as $6 million to a London-based opposition group [[Movement for Justice and Development in Syria|Movement for Justice and Development]] since 2006 to operate the [[Barada TV]] satellite channel and finance other activities inside Syria.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/us-secretly-backed-syrian-opposition-groups-cables-released-by-wikileaks-show/2011/04/14/AF1p9hwD_story.html | work=The Washington Post | title=U.S. secretly backed Syrian opposition groups, cables released by WikiLeaks show|date=18 April 2011 | first=Joel | last=Greenberg}}</ref> A report in the ''Washington Post'' in May 2012 described how the provision of military aid to opposition forces from Gulf states was being partly coordinated by the US.<ref>{{cite web|author=Karen DeYoung and Liz Sly |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/syrian-rebels-get-influx-of-arms-with-gulf-neighbors-money-us-coordination/2012/05/15/gIQAds2TSU_story.html |title=Syrian rebels get influx of arms with gulf neighbors' money, U.S. coordination |work=Washington Post|date=15 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref> A month later, the ''New York Times'' reported that the American involvement was being overseen by [[CIA]] officers in Turkey, and that the weapons provided included "automatic rifles, rocket-propelled grenades, ammunition and some antitank weapons". Part of the CIA's role was "helping to vet rebel groups" to ensure fighters allied with [[Al Qaeda]] or other terrorist groups were not benefiting from the flood of weaponry being provided and paid for by Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.<ref name=Schmitt>{{cite news|last=Schmitt|first=Eric|date=21 June 2012|title=C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/21/world/middleeast/cia-said-to-aid-in-steering-arms-to-syrian-rebels.html|publisher=NYTimes.com|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> The American vetting is partly an attempt to learn the lessons of assisting jihadi opposition groups in Afghanistan in the 1980s, which left a negative legacy of empowering radical Islamists that has lasted to the present day.<ref name = "FP Schanzer">{{cite web|last=Schanzer|first=Jonathan|date=27 February 2012|title=Saudi Arabia Is Arming the Syrian Opposition|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/02/27/saudi_arabia_is_arming_the_syrian_opposition|publisher=FP.com|accessdate=23 June 2012|quote=The last time the Saudis decided they had a moral obligation to scuttle Russian policies, they gave birth to a generation of jihadi fighters in Afghanistan who are still wreaking havoc three decades later.}}</ref> Elizabeth O'Bagy urged additional caution: "Facilitating weapon transfers to certain groups could empower militias at the expense of the grassroots political opposition. One key condition for future arms transfers should be that groups receiving weapons agree to submit to civilian command structures."<ref name = "FP fox"/> US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta emphasised that, in contrast to others, his country was only providing facilitation and non-lethal support to the opposition.<ref name="Panetta">{{cite news|last=Stewart|first=Phil|date=22 June 2012|title=Not time to arm Syrians, Pentagon chief says|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/06/22/usa-panetta-syria-idINDEE85L04820120622|agency=Reuters|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> A few days later, ''The Guardian'' reported plans by Saudi Arabia to pay the salaries of the Free Syrian Army via a command centre in Turkey, the aim being to encourage mass defections from the Syrian military.<ref name = "Saudi pays">{{cite web|last1=Chulov|first1=Martin|last2=MacAskill|first2=Ewen|last3=Densky|first3=John|date=22 June 2012|title=Saudi Arabia plans to fund Syria rebel army|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/22/saudi-arabia-syria-rebel-army|publisher=guardian.co.uk|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref>


=====Defections=====
=====Defections=====
According to Daniel Byman: "Because the Syrian elite fears losing its privileged position and suffering payback for its decades of brutality, it is unlikely to support Assad's removal, particularly if they see the opposition as weak, divided, and thus unable to win in the long-term."{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 14 June 2012 |title= No More Half Measures |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/14/no_more_half_measures |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }} Thus when, on 8 March 2012, Abdo Hussameddin, Syria's deputy oil minister, became the highest political figure to have defected to the opposition since the start of the uprising, it was important not to read too much into it.{{cite web |last= Weaver |first= Matthew |date= 8 March 2012 |title= Syria: deputy oil minister defects - Thursday 8 March 2012 |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2012/mar/08/syria-oil-minister-defects-live#block-11 |publisher= guardian.co.uk |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} And though there has been a steady stream of defections from the armed forces, in June 2012 Damascus still retained control of many key divisions and the loyalty of its most elite units and inner sanctum. Early in July, the most significant defection to date took place in the form of General Manaf Tlas, who is from one of the country's most famous families, though the value of his defection for the opposition was again primarily symbolic.{{cite web |last1= Fielding-Smith |first1= Abigail |last2= Carnegy |first2= Hugh |last3= Khalaf |first3= Roula |date= 6 July 2012 |title= Member of Assad's inner circle defects |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/162973e4-c74a-11e1-8865-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 8 July 2012 }}
According to Daniel Byman: "Because the Syrian elite fears losing its privileged position and suffering payback for its decades of brutality, it is unlikely to support Assad's removal, particularly if they see the opposition as weak, divided, and thus unable to win in the long-term."<ref>{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 14 June 2012 |title= No More Half Measures |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/14/no_more_half_measures |publisher= FP.com |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }}</ref> Thus when, on 8 March 2012, Abdo Hussameddin, Syria's deputy oil minister, became the highest political figure to have defected to the opposition since the start of the uprising, it was important not to read too much into it.<ref>{{cite web |last= Weaver |first= Matthew |date= 8 March 2012 |title= Syria: deputy oil minister defects - Thursday 8 March 2012 |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2012/mar/08/syria-oil-minister-defects-live#block-11 |publisher= guardian.co.uk |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> And though there has been a steady stream of defections from the armed forces, in June 2012 Damascus still retained control of many key divisions and the loyalty of its most elite units and inner sanctum.<ref name = "G 2nd jet"/> Early in July, the most significant defection to date took place in the form of General Manaf Tlas, who is from one of the country's most famous families, though the value of his defection for the opposition was again primarily symbolic.<ref>{{cite web |last1= Fielding-Smith |first1= Abigail |last2= Carnegy |first2= Hugh |last3= Khalaf |first3= Roula |date= 6 July 2012 |title= Member of Assad's inner circle defects |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/162973e4-c74a-11e1-8865-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 8 July 2012 }}</ref>


====Support for the Syrian government====
====Support for the Syrian government====
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{{main|Russia's role in the Syrian uprising}}
{{main|Russia's role in the Syrian uprising}}
{{seealso|Russian naval base in Tartus}}
{{seealso|Russian naval base in Tartus}}
Russia has provided arms, including refurbished helicopter gunships, and diplomatic support to the Syrian government. In January 2012, Human Rights Watch criticised Russia for "repeating the mistakes of Western governments" in its "misguided" support of Assad.{{cite web |url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/01/23/russia-repeats-western-mistakes-arab-spring |title=Russia Repeats Western Mistakes in Arab Spring |date=23 January 2012 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |accessdate=23 January 2012}} Amnesty International, noting the Syrian government's headlong deployment of military helicopters, criticised Russia of "a wanton disregard for humanity."{{cite web |title= Syria: Reports of helicopter shipments underscore need for arms embargo |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-reports-helicopter-shipments-underscore-need-arms-embargo-2012-06-19 |date= 19 June 2012 |publisher= Amnesty International |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }} Human Rights Watch warned Russia's state-owned arms-trading company [[Rosoboronexport]] in a letter that, under international law, "providing weapons to Syria while crimes against humanity are being committed may translate into assisting in the commission of those crimes", and called on governments and companies around the world to stop signing new contracts and consider suspending current dealings with the Russian company.{{cite web |title= Isolate Syria's Arms Suppliers |url= http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/06/03/isolate-syria-s-arms-suppliers |date= 3 June 2012 |publisher= HRW |accessdate= 29 June 2012 }} Not long after, however, the US bought Mi-17 helicopters from Rosoboronexport worth hundreds of millions of dollars.{{cite news |title= US defends Russian arms deal despite Syria link |url= http://news.yahoo.com/us-defends-russian-arms-deal-despite-syria-214916956.html |agency= AFP |date= 12 June 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} One of Russia's interests is access to the port of Tartus, home to [[Russian naval base in Tartus|its only remaining military base]] outside the former USSR and thus a key source of its influence in the eastern Mediterranean.{{cite news|title=Wait and sea|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21542793|date=14 January 2012|work=The Economist|accessdate=23 June 2012}} The [[Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies]], a leading Russian think tank, played down Tartus and other allegedly important national interests, though, arguing instead that Russian support was "irrational".{{cite web |last= Clover |first= Charles |date= 26 June 2012 |title= Think-tank questions Russia backing for Syria |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/fbb43546-bf9f-11e1-8bf2-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 11 July 2012 }} In July 2012, however, Vyacheslav Dzirkaln, deputy director of Russia's Federal Service for Military Technical Co-operation, announced a halt to any new weapons transfers.{{cite news |last= Grove |first= Thomas |date= 9 July 2012 |title= Russia to suspend new arms to Syria - agencies |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/09/syria-crisis-russia-jets-idUKL6E8I95LC20120709 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}
Russia has provided arms, including refurbished helicopter gunships, and diplomatic support to the Syrian government. In January 2012, Human Rights Watch criticised Russia for "repeating the mistakes of Western governments" in its "misguided" support of Assad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/01/23/russia-repeats-western-mistakes-arab-spring |title=Russia Repeats Western Mistakes in Arab Spring |date=23 January 2012 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |accessdate=23 January 2012}}</ref> Amnesty International, noting the Syrian government's headlong deployment of military helicopters, criticised Russia of "a wanton disregard for humanity."<ref>{{cite web |title= Syria: Reports of helicopter shipments underscore need for arms embargo |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-reports-helicopter-shipments-underscore-need-arms-embargo-2012-06-19 |date= 19 June 2012 |publisher= Amnesty International |accessdate= 25 June 2012 }}</ref> Human Rights Watch warned Russia's state-owned arms-trading company [[Rosoboronexport]] in a letter that, under international law, "providing weapons to Syria while crimes against humanity are being committed may translate into assisting in the commission of those crimes", and called on governments and companies around the world to stop signing new contracts and consider suspending current dealings with the Russian company.<ref>{{cite web |title= Isolate Syria's Arms Suppliers |url= http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/06/03/isolate-syria-s-arms-suppliers |date= 3 June 2012 |publisher= HRW |accessdate= 29 June 2012 }}</ref> Not long after, however, the US bought Mi-17 helicopters from Rosoboronexport worth hundreds of millions of dollars.<ref>{{cite news |title= US defends Russian arms deal despite Syria link |url= http://news.yahoo.com/us-defends-russian-arms-deal-despite-syria-214916956.html |agency= AFP |date= 12 June 2012 |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> One of Russia's interests is access to the port of Tartus, home to [[Russian naval base in Tartus|its only remaining military base]] outside the former USSR and thus a key source of its influence in the eastern Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite news|title=Wait and sea|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21542793|date=14 January 2012|work=The Economist|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> The [[Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies]], a leading Russian think tank, played down Tartus and other allegedly important national interests, though, arguing instead that Russian support was "irrational".<ref>{{cite web |last= Clover |first= Charles |date= 26 June 2012 |title= Think-tank questions Russia backing for Syria |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/fbb43546-bf9f-11e1-8bf2-00144feabdc0.html |publisher= FT.com |accessdate= 11 July 2012 }}</ref> In July 2012, however, Vyacheslav Dzirkaln, deputy director of Russia's Federal Service for Military Technical Co-operation, announced a halt to any new weapons transfers.<ref>{{cite news |last= Grove |first= Thomas |date= 9 July 2012 |title= Russia to suspend new arms to Syria - agencies |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/09/syria-crisis-russia-jets-idUKL6E8I95LC20120709 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>


=====Iran=====
=====Iran=====
Iran's [[supreme leader]], [[Ali Khamenei]], was vocally in favor of the Syrian government.{{cite web|url=http://www.insideiran.org/featured/how-iran-keeps-assad-in-power-in-syria/ |title=How Iran Keeps Assad in Power in Syria |work=Inside Iran|date=5 September 2011 |accessdate=6 February 2012}} ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that the Iranian government is assisting the Syrian government with riot control equipment and intelligence monitoring techniques.{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/08/iran-helping-syrian-regime-protesters|title=Iran helping Syrian regime crack down on protesters, say diplomats |first= Simon |last= Tisdall |work=The Guardian |date= 9 May 2011 |accessdate= 22 February 2012 }} ''The Economist'' said that Iran had, by February 2012, sent the Syrian government $9 billion to help it withstand Western sanctions."Syria's crisis: The long road to Damascus: There are signs that the Syrian regime may become still more violent", [[The Economist]], dated 11 February 2012. It has also shipped fuel to the country and sent two warships to a Syrian port in a display of power and support.{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17083791 |title=Iran warships enter Mediterranean via Suez Canal |work=BBC |date=18 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}}
Iran's [[supreme leader]], [[Ali Khamenei]], was vocally in favor of the Syrian government.<ref name=abdo>{{cite web|url=http://www.insideiran.org/featured/how-iran-keeps-assad-in-power-in-syria/ |title=How Iran Keeps Assad in Power in Syria |work=Inside Iran|date=5 September 2011 |accessdate=6 February 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that the Iranian government is assisting the Syrian government with riot control equipment and intelligence monitoring techniques.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/08/iran-helping-syrian-regime-protesters|title=Iran helping Syrian regime crack down on protesters, say diplomats |first= Simon |last= Tisdall |work=The Guardian |date= 9 May 2011 |accessdate= 22 February 2012 }}</ref> ''The Economist'' said that Iran had, by February 2012, sent the Syrian government $9 billion to help it withstand Western sanctions.<ref>"Syria's crisis: The long road to Damascus: There are signs that the Syrian regime may become still more violent", [[The Economist]], dated 11 February 2012.</ref> It has also shipped fuel to the country and sent two warships to a Syrian port in a display of power and support.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17083791 |title=Iran warships enter Mediterranean via Suez Canal |work=BBC |date=18 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref>


U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations [[Susan Rice]] accused Iran of secretly aiding Assad in his efforts to quell the protests,{{cite news|url = http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5i0qX8ds9qgWwm4UrEaSbPSYzi5_w?docId=CNG.c2f5dc960801ff43cc91b676c7bd5469.561|title = Obama Condemns 'Outrageous' Syria Violence, Iran Aid |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|work=Google News| accessdate=27 April 2011}} and there have been reports of Syrian protesters hearing security-force members speaking [[Persian language|Persian]].{{cite news|last=Navon |first=Emmanuel |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?ID=213975|title='Iran, Hezbollah assisting in Syria protest suppression'|work=Jerusalem Post|date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}} The city of [[Zabadani]] is vitally important to Assad and to Iran because, at least as late as June 2011, the city served as the [[Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps]]'s logistical hub for supplying Hizballah.{{citation |separator= . |last= Holliday |first= Joseph |month= March |year= 2012 |title= Syria's Armed Opposition |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Syrias_Armed_Opposition.pdf |series= Middle East Security Report 3 |publisher= Institute for the Study of War |page= 25 |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}
U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations [[Susan Rice]] accused Iran of secretly aiding Assad in his efforts to quell the protests,<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5i0qX8ds9qgWwm4UrEaSbPSYzi5_w?docId=CNG.c2f5dc960801ff43cc91b676c7bd5469.561|title = Obama Condemns 'Outrageous' Syria Violence, Iran Aid |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|work=Google News| accessdate=27 April 2011}}</ref> and there have been reports of Syrian protesters hearing security-force members speaking [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Navon |first=Emmanuel |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?ID=213975|title='Iran, Hezbollah assisting in Syria protest suppression'|work=Jerusalem Post|date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> The city of [[Zabadani]] is vitally important to Assad and to Iran because, at least as late as June 2011, the city served as the [[Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps]]'s logistical hub for supplying Hizballah.<ref name = "report 3">{{citation |separator= . |last= Holliday |first= Joseph |month= March |year= 2012 |title= Syria's Armed Opposition |url= http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Syrias_Armed_Opposition.pdf |series= Middle East Security Report 3 |publisher= Institute for the Study of War |page= 25 |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>


According to a U.N. panel in May 2012, Iran supplied the Syrian government with arms during the previous year despite a ban on weapons exports by the Islamic Republic. Turkish authorities captured crates and a truck in February 2012, including assault rifles, machine guns, explosives, detonators, 60mm and 120mm mortal shells as well as other items on its border. It was believed these were destined for the Syrian government. The confidential report leaked just hours after an article appeared in the ''Washington Post'' revealing how Syrian opposition fighters started to receive more, and better, weapons in an effort paid for by Gulf Arab states and co-ordinated partly by the US.{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2012/05/20125175553158930.html|title=Iran 'sending arms to Syria despite ban' |publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=17 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}} The report investigated three large illegal shipments of Iranian weapons over the past year and stated "Iran has continued to defy the international community through illegal arms shipments. Two of these cases involved (Syria), as were the majority of cases inspected by the Panel during its previous mandate, underscoring that Syria continues to be the central party to illicit Iranian arms transfers."{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/16/us-iran-sanctions-un-idUSBRE84F14520120516|title=Exclusive: Iran flouts U.N. sanctions, sends arms to Syria: panel|first=Louis|last=Charbonneau|date=16 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012|agency=Reuters}}
According to a U.N. panel in May 2012, Iran supplied the Syrian government with arms during the previous year despite a ban on weapons exports by the Islamic Republic. Turkish authorities captured crates and a truck in February 2012, including assault rifles, machine guns, explosives, detonators, 60mm and 120mm mortal shells as well as other items on its border. It was believed these were destined for the Syrian government. The confidential report leaked just hours after an article appeared in the ''Washington Post'' revealing how Syrian opposition fighters started to receive more, and better, weapons in an effort paid for by Gulf Arab states and co-ordinated partly by the US.<ref name="aljazeera.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2012/05/20125175553158930.html|title=Iran 'sending arms to Syria despite ban'&nbsp;|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=17 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref> The report investigated three large illegal shipments of Iranian weapons over the past year and stated "Iran has continued to defy the international community through illegal arms shipments. Two of these cases involved (Syria), as were the majority of cases inspected by the Panel during its previous mandate, underscoring that Syria continues to be the central party to illicit Iranian arms transfers."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/16/us-iran-sanctions-un-idUSBRE84F14520120516|title=Exclusive: Iran flouts U.N. sanctions, sends arms to Syria: panel|first=Louis|last=Charbonneau|date=16 May 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012|agency=Reuters}}</ref>


In March 2012, anonymous U.S. intelligence officials claimed a spike in Iran­ian-supplied arms and other aid for the Syrian government. Iranian security officials also allegedly traveled to Damascus to help deliver this assistance. A second senior U.S. official said members of Iran's main intelligence service, the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, are assisting Syrian counterparts in charge of the crackdown.{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-officials-iran-is-stepping-up-lethal-aid-to-syria/2012/03/02/gIQAGR9XpR_story_1.html |title=U.S. officials: Iran is stepping up lethal aid to Syria |work=Washington Post|date=2 March 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}} More anonymous sources were cited by the UN in May 2012, as it claimed arms were moving both ways between Lebanon and Syria, and alleged weapons brought in from Lebanon were being used to arm the opposition.{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/05/09/212988.html|title=Weapons being smuggled both ways between Lebanon and Syria: U.N. envoy|date=9 May 2012|work=Al Arabiya|accessdate=9 May 2012}} The alleged spike in Iranian arms was likely a response to a looming influx of weapons and ammunition to the rebels from Gulf states that had been reported shortly before.
In March 2012, anonymous U.S. intelligence officials claimed a spike in Iran­ian-supplied arms and other aid for the Syrian government. Iranian security officials also allegedly traveled to Damascus to help deliver this assistance. A second senior U.S. official said members of Iran's main intelligence service, the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, are assisting Syrian counterparts in charge of the crackdown.<ref name="Iranaiding">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-officials-iran-is-stepping-up-lethal-aid-to-syria/2012/03/02/gIQAGR9XpR_story_1.html |title=U.S. officials: Iran is stepping up lethal aid to Syria |work=Washington Post|date=2 March 2012|accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref> More anonymous sources were cited by the UN in May 2012, as it claimed arms were moving both ways between Lebanon and Syria, and alleged weapons brought in from Lebanon were being used to arm the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/05/09/212988.html|title=Weapons being smuggled both ways between Lebanon and Syria: U.N. envoy|date=9 May 2012|work=Al Arabiya|accessdate=9 May 2012}}</ref> The alleged spike in Iranian arms was likely a response to a looming influx of weapons and ammunition to the rebels from Gulf states that had been reported shortly before.<ref name=Schmitt/>


According to US journalist [[Geneive Abdo]], the Iranian government provided the Syrian government with technology to monitor e-mail, cell phones and social media. Iran developed these capabilities in the wake of the [[2009–2010 Iranian election protests|2009 protests]] and spent millions of dollars establishing a "cyber army" to track down dissidents online. Iran's monitoring technology is believed to be among the most sophisticated in the world, perhaps only second to China.
According to US journalist [[Geneive Abdo]], the Iranian government provided the Syrian government with technology to monitor e-mail, cell phones and social media. Iran developed these capabilities in the wake of the [[2009–2010 Iranian election protests|2009 protests]] and spent millions of dollars establishing a "cyber army" to track down dissidents online. Iran's monitoring technology is believed to be among the most sophisticated in the world, perhaps only second to China.<ref name=abdo/>


=====China=====
=====China=====
China has provided diplomatic support and possibly facilitated material support for Assad's government. This has included vetoing a UN Security Council resolution in tandem with Russia; ''Jerusalem Post'' correspondent Oren Kessler reported that Beijing's veto was enacted in the interests of preserving its ties with Russia.{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/VideoArticles/Video/Article.aspx?id=258173 |title=China veto on Syria was gesture to Russia |date=17 February 2012 |work=Jerusalem Post |accessdate=17 April 2012}} China was named in a May 2012 Security Council report as a transit hub for illegal arms shipments from North Korea, with UN investigators investigating reports of such shipments to the Syrian government.{{cite news |last1= Charbonneau |first1= Louis |last2= Nichols |first2= Michelle |date= 17 May 2012 |title= Exclusive: U.N. probes possible North Korea arms trade with Syria, Myanmar |url= http://af.reuters.com/article/nigeriaNews/idAFL1E8GI00V20120518?sp=true |agency= Reuters |accessdate=24 June 2012}}
China has provided diplomatic support and possibly facilitated material support for Assad's government. This has included vetoing a UN Security Council resolution in tandem with Russia; ''Jerusalem Post'' correspondent Oren Kessler reported that Beijing's veto was enacted in the interests of preserving its ties with Russia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/VideoArticles/Video/Article.aspx?id=258173 |title=China veto on Syria was gesture to Russia |date=17 February 2012 |work=Jerusalem Post |accessdate=17 April 2012}}</ref> China was named in a May 2012 Security Council report as a transit hub for illegal arms shipments from North Korea, with UN investigators investigating reports of such shipments to the Syrian government.<ref name = "China NK">{{cite news |last1= Charbonneau |first1= Louis |last2= Nichols |first2= Michelle |date= 17 May 2012 |title= Exclusive: U.N. probes possible North Korea arms trade with Syria, Myanmar |url= http://af.reuters.com/article/nigeriaNews/idAFL1E8GI00V20120518?sp=true |agency= Reuters |accessdate=24 June 2012}}</ref>


=====Other countries=====
=====Other countries=====
According to a top official of the Iranian revolutionary guard corps, Hezbollah operatives took part in fighting on the ground against the opposition in Damascus and in the [[Battle of Zabadani]].{{cite web|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/syrian-regime-importing-snipers-for-protests/story-e6frg6so-1226254330519 |title=Syrian regime 'importing snipers' for protests |work=The Australian|date=17 February 2012 |accessdate=17 May 2012}}
According to a top official of the Iranian revolutionary guard corps, Hezbollah operatives took part in fighting on the ground against the opposition in Damascus and in the [[Battle of Zabadani]].<ref name="aus">{{cite web|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/syrian-regime-importing-snipers-for-protests/story-e6frg6so-1226254330519 |title=Syrian regime 'importing snipers' for protests |work=The Australian|date=17 February 2012 |accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref>


In February 2012, it was reported that Hugo Chavez' government in Venezuela had been shipping tens of millions of dollars of diesel to Syria, which can be used to fuel army tanks.{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/16/us-venezuela-syria-idUSTRE81F11220120216 |title=Exclusive: Venezuela ships fuel to war-torn Syria: traders |author=Marianna Parraga |coauthor=Emma Farge |date=21 February 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 March 2012}} The following month, as it prepared a third shipment, Venezuela confirmed that it would continue sending diesel to the country.{{cite news |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/venezuela-to-ship-more-fuel-to-syria-as-crackdown-spreads/ |title=Venezuela to ship more fuel to Syria as crackdown spreads |author=Marianna Parraga |date=6 March 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 March 2012}} ''The Wall Street Journal'' obtained documents showing that a fourth big shipment of diesel was being readied in July 2012: "the deals are structured to bring other benefits, including shielding Syria's dwindling foreign-exchange reserves". The paper also noted that even "Syria's political opposition is split on the issue of cutting off all energy exports to the country. While they would like to see Mr. Assad's tanks run out of fuel, they also worry that a shortage of diesel could equally undermine the political and military opposition inside Syria."{{cite web |last1= Solomon |first1= Jay |last2= Johnson |first2= Keith |date= 9 July 2012 |title= To Power Syria, Chávez Sends Diesel |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303292204577517041523762940.html |publisher= WSJ.com |accessdate= 11 July 2012 }}
In February 2012, it was reported that Hugo Chavez' government in Venezuela had been shipping tens of millions of dollars of diesel to Syria, which can be used to fuel army tanks.<ref name="Reuters 16Feb2012">{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/16/us-venezuela-syria-idUSTRE81F11220120216 |title=Exclusive: Venezuela ships fuel to war-torn Syria: traders |author=Marianna Parraga |coauthor=Emma Farge |date=21 February 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 March 2012}}</ref> The following month, as it prepared a third shipment, Venezuela confirmed that it would continue sending diesel to the country.<ref name="Reuters 06Mar2012">{{cite news |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/venezuela-to-ship-more-fuel-to-syria-as-crackdown-spreads/ |title=Venezuela to ship more fuel to Syria as crackdown spreads |author=Marianna Parraga |date=6 March 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 March 2012}}</ref> ''The Wall Street Journal'' obtained documents showing that a fourth big shipment of diesel was being readied in July 2012: "the deals are structured to bring other benefits, including shielding Syria's dwindling foreign-exchange reserves". The paper also noted that even "Syria's political opposition is split on the issue of cutting off all energy exports to the country. While they would like to see Mr. Assad's tanks run out of fuel, they also worry that a shortage of diesel could equally undermine the political and military opposition inside Syria."<ref>{{cite web |last1= Solomon |first1= Jay |last2= Johnson |first2= Keith |date= 9 July 2012 |title= To Power Syria, Chávez Sends Diesel |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303292204577517041523762940.html |publisher= WSJ.com |accessdate= 11 July 2012 }}</ref>


A Greece-based trading company, Naftomar, is reputedly the last firm arranging deliveries of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), but, unlike the fuel sent from Venezuela and Russia, LPG is a peaceful material that plays a vital role in countries like Syria that have limited infrastructure for piping gas. International sanctions do not apply to LPG for humanitarian reasons.{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/12/us-syria-imports-lebanon-idUSBRE82B16520120312 |title=The firm that keeps heating fuel flowing to Assad's Syria |author=Jessica Donati |coauthor=Emma Farge |date=12 March 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 March 2012}}
A Greece-based trading company, Naftomar, is reputedly the last firm arranging deliveries of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), but, unlike the fuel sent from Venezuela and Russia, LPG is a peaceful material that plays a vital role in countries like Syria that have limited infrastructure for piping gas. International sanctions do not apply to LPG for humanitarian reasons.<ref name="Reuters 12Mar2012">{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/12/us-syria-imports-lebanon-idUSBRE82B16520120312 |title=The firm that keeps heating fuel flowing to Assad's Syria |author=Jessica Donati |coauthor=Emma Farge |date=12 March 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 March 2012}}</ref>


[[Syria Files|WikiLeaks revelations]] beginning in July 2012 led to accusations that the subsidiary of an Italian arms company had provided communications equipment to the Syrian military in May 2011, and that, as late as February 2012, its engineers gave training on the use of the communications technology, including how it could be installed in helicopters.{{cite news |last= Squires |first= Nick |date= 5 July 2012 |title= WikiLeaks begins publishing tranche of Syria emails |url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9379768/WikiLeaks-begins-publishing-tranche-of-Syria-emails.html |newspaper= The Daily Telegraph |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }} The company said the equipment was for civilian use and said it had not sold any technology to Syria since the beginning of the uprising.{{cite news |title= Finmeccanica confirms disposal plans |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/09/us-airshow-finmeccanica-idUKBRE8680FG20120709 |agency= Reuters |date= 9 July 2012 |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}
[[Syria Files|WikiLeaks revelations]] beginning in July 2012 led to accusations that the subsidiary of an Italian arms company had provided communications equipment to the Syrian military in May 2011, and that, as late as February 2012, its engineers gave training on the use of the communications technology, including how it could be installed in helicopters.<ref>{{cite news |last= Squires |first= Nick |date= 5 July 2012 |title= WikiLeaks begins publishing tranche of Syria emails |url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9379768/WikiLeaks-begins-publishing-tranche-of-Syria-emails.html |newspaper= The Daily Telegraph |accessdate= 6 July 2012 }}</ref> The company said the equipment was for civilian use and said it had not sold any technology to Syria since the beginning of the uprising.<ref>{{cite news |title= Finmeccanica confirms disposal plans |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/09/us-airshow-finmeccanica-idUKBRE8680FG20120709 |agency= Reuters |date= 9 July 2012 |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>


====Events in Lebanon====
====Events in Lebanon====
{{main| 2012 conflict in Lebanon}}
{{main| 2012 conflict in Lebanon}}
In May 2012, following a series of previous sectarian clashes between pro-Assad forces (mostly Alawites) and anti-Asad forces (mostly Lebanese Sunnis) the violence in Lebanon reached new heights. Since mid-May until early June 2012, dozens were killed in Tripoli and Beirut and hundreds wounded. The Lebanese Army was deployed in the conflict areas in order to pacify the sides.
In May 2012, following a series of previous sectarian clashes between pro-Assad forces (mostly Alawites) and anti-Asad forces (mostly Lebanese Sunnis<ref name=bkm_lebanon/>) the violence in Lebanon reached new heights. Since mid-May until early June 2012, dozens were killed in Tripoli and Beirut and hundreds wounded. The Lebanese Army was deployed in the conflict areas in order to pacify the sides.


==Syrian refugees==
==Syrian refugees==
{{main|Refugees of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
{{main|Refugees of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
The refugee problem began unfolding across Syrian borders on April 2011, intensifying with the [[siege of Talkalakh]] and the [[siege of Jisr al-Shughour|unrest]] in the Syrian province of [[Idlib]]. As a result, thousands of Syrian citizens fled across the border to Lebanon and Syria by summer 2011. In early 2012, the numbers of Syrian refugees swelled to some 20,000 registered by UN in Lebanon, Turkey and Jordan. Syrian Kurds constitute most of the thousands who have sought shelter in northern Iraq.
The refugee problem began unfolding across Syrian borders on April 2011, intensifying with the [[siege of Talkalakh]] and the [[siege of Jisr al-Shughour|unrest]] in the Syrian province of [[Idlib]]. As a result, thousands of Syrian citizens fled across the border to Lebanon and Syria by summer 2011. In early 2012, the numbers of Syrian refugees swelled to some 20,000 registered by UN in Lebanon, Turkey and Jordan. Syrian Kurds constitute most of the thousands who have sought shelter in northern Iraq.<ref name = "HRW Kurds"/>


Following the increased fighting in Homs and the escalating assault of Syrian troops on towns and villages near Lebanese border, a large-scale refugee influx into Lebanon was reported on 4 March 2012. The exact number of moving Syrian refegees was not clear, but was described around 2,000.{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2012-03-05/un-humanitarian-chief-visit-Syria/53368520/1|title=Syrian refugees flee to Lebanon|work=USA Today|agency=Associated Press|date=3 May 2012|accessdate=21 May 2012|location=Qaa}} The numbers of Syrian refugees were estimated at 130,000 in early March 2012.
Following the increased fighting in Homs and the escalating assault of Syrian troops on towns and villages near Lebanese border, a large-scale refugee influx into Lebanon was reported on 4 March 2012. The exact number of moving Syrian refegees was not clear, but was described around 2,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2012-03-05/un-humanitarian-chief-visit-Syria/53368520/1|title=Syrian refugees flee to Lebanon|work=USA Today|agency=Associated Press|date=3 May 2012|accessdate=21 May 2012|location=Qaa}}</ref> The numbers of Syrian refugees were estimated at 130,000 in early March 2012.


On 10 April, it was reported that the number of Syrian refugees in four neighboring countries jumped by 40% within several weeks and stands at about 55,000 registered, almost half of whom are under 18 years old, according to U.N. figures. There were also estimated to be at least 20,000 refugees who have not yet registered, as well as 200,000 or more Syrians who were displaced within their own country.{{cite news|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/10/us-syria-refugees-idUSBRE8390JE20120410 |title=Factbox: Syrian refugee exodus grows|date=10 April 2012|accessdate=21 May 2012}}
On 10 April, it was reported that the number of Syrian refugees in four neighboring countries jumped by 40% within several weeks and stands at about 55,000 registered, almost half of whom are under 18 years old, according to U.N. figures.<ref name=factbox/> There were also estimated to be at least 20,000 refugees who have not yet registered, as well as 200,000 or more Syrians who were displaced within their own country.<ref name=factbox>{{cite news|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/10/us-syria-refugees-idUSBRE8390JE20120410 |title=Factbox: Syrian refugee exodus grows|date=10 April 2012|accessdate=21 May 2012}}</ref>


By June, the number of Syrian refugees reached 180,000 throughout the Middle East, with the major concentration of 120,000 in Jordan.
By June, the number of Syrian refugees reached 180,000 throughout the Middle East, with the major concentration of 120,000 in Jordan.


==Deaths==
==Deaths==
The number of fatalities in the conflict, according to the Syrian opposition website Syrian Martyrs, was 19,738, updated to 14 July 2012.{{cite web |url=http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&|title=Syrian Martyrs |publisher=Free Syria |accessdate=14 July 2012}} The number includes 1,495 military defectors, and does not include members of the government security forces or foreign fighters who have died on both sides.{{cite web|url=http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&a=st&st=7|title=Number as a civil / military |publisher=Syrian Martyrs |accessdate=14 July 2012}} 147 foreign civilians who have died in the conflict are also included in the toll, most of them, 115, being Palestinians.{{cite web|url=http://syrianshuhada.com/default.asp?a=st&st=12 |title=The number of martyrs by Nationality |publisher=Syrianshuhada.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-14}} The Syrian Martyrs number is significantly higher than the ones presented by other organisations, including the UN, one reason being they record deaths even when no name is given for the reportedly killed individual.
The number of fatalities in the conflict, according to the Syrian opposition website Syrian Martyrs, was 19,738, updated to 14 July 2012.<ref name="shuhadamain">{{cite web |url=http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&|title=Syrian Martyrs |publisher=Free Syria |accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> The number includes 1,495 military defectors, and does not include members of the government security forces or foreign fighters who have died on both sides.<ref name="Number as a civil / military">{{cite web|url=http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&a=st&st=7|title=Number as a civil / military |publisher=Syrian Martyrs |accessdate=14 July 2012}}</ref> 147 foreign civilians who have died in the conflict are also included in the toll, most of them, 115, being Palestinians.<ref name="shuhadanationality">{{cite web|url=http://syrianshuhada.com/default.asp?a=st&st=12 |title=The number of martyrs by Nationality |publisher=Syrianshuhada.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-14}}</ref> The Syrian Martyrs number is significantly higher than the ones presented by other organisations, including the UN, one reason being they record deaths even when no name is given for the reportedly killed individual.<ref name="Syriancrisis"/>


[[UNICEF]] reported that over 500 children have been killed.{{cite news |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jn_Hwm1c4s57hZroY2XO3gtvHl_g?docId=CNG.d4e0242216423f0ddcaa53de60d07900.f1 |title=UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria unrest |work=Google News|date=7 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |location=Geneva }}{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/23/UNICEF-500-children-died-in-Syrian-war/UPI-69191332522535/ |title=UNICEF: 500 children died in Syrian war |publisher=UPI.com |date=2012-03-23 |accessdate=2012-07-06}} Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.{{cite news |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/breaking-news/unicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria/story-e6freonf-1226265280318 |title=UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria |work=The Courier-Mail |date=8 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }}{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |work=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }} Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.{{cite web|url=http://sana.sy/eng/22/2012/02/14/400319.htm |title=Al-Jafari: Syria has Right to Protect its Citizen, Combat Terrorism and Armed Violence|work=Syrian Arab news agency|date=14 February 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}} Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html |work=The New York Times |first=Kareem |last=Fahim |title=Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says |date=5 January 2012 }}
[[UNICEF]] reported that over 500 children have been killed.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jn_Hwm1c4s57hZroY2XO3gtvHl_g?docId=CNG.d4e0242216423f0ddcaa53de60d07900.f1 |title=UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria unrest |work=Google News|date=7 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |location=Geneva }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/23/UNICEF-500-children-died-in-Syrian-war/UPI-69191332522535/ |title=UNICEF: 500 children died in Syrian war |publisher=UPI.com |date=2012-03-23 |accessdate=2012-07-06}}</ref> Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/breaking-news/unicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria/story-e6freonf-1226265280318 |title=UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria |work=The Courier-Mail |date=8 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |work=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }}</ref> Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sana.sy/eng/22/2012/02/14/400319.htm |title=Al-Jafari: Syria has Right to Protect its Citizen, Combat Terrorism and Armed Violence|work=Syrian Arab news agency|date=14 February 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html |work=The New York Times |first=Kareem |last=Fahim |title=Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says |date=5 January 2012 }}</ref>
[[File:Reported Deaths in Violence Across Syria April 2012.png|thumb|Reported deaths in violence across Syria.|300px]]
[[File:Reported Deaths in Violence Across Syria April 2012.png|thumb|Reported deaths in violence across Syria.|300px]]
[[File:Syria Civil War Victims Map.jpg|thumb|right|Victims of the uprising in [[Syria]] from 26 January 2011 to 12 April 2012|300px]]
[[File:Syria Civil War Victims Map.jpg|thumb|right|Victims of the uprising in [[Syria]] from 26 January 2011 to 12 April 2012|300px]]
Line 361: Line 363:
| Total || 18,205
| Total || 18,205
|}
|}
Other estimates range from 15,000 to 18,220. Except for the L.C.C. estimate, which does not count security forces,{{cite web|last=Khera |first=Jastinder |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18093967 |title=Syria crisis: Counting the victims |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2012-05-29 |accessdate=2012-07-08}} all of the totals include civilians, rebels, and security forces. Foreign civilians and fighters who have died on both sides are not included in the following figures:
Other estimates range from 15,000 to 18,220. Except for the L.C.C. estimate, which does not count security forces,<ref name="Syriancrisis">{{cite web|last=Khera |first=Jastinder |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18093967 |title=Syria crisis: Counting the victims |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2012-05-29 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref> all of the totals include civilians, rebels, and security forces. Foreign civilians and fighters who have died on both sides are not included in the following figures:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 370: Line 372:
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Local Coordination Committees'''
|'''Local Coordination Committees'''
|'''14,841''' killed[http://www.chron.com/news/article/Syrian-opposition-group-Death-toll-tops-17-000-3692449.php Syrian opposition group: Death toll tops 17,000]
|'''14,841''' killed<ref name=tops17000>[http://www.chron.com/news/article/Syrian-opposition-group-Death-toll-tops-17-000-3692449.php Syrian opposition group: Death toll tops 17,000]</ref>
|15 March 2011 – 9 July 2012
|15 March 2011 – 9 July 2012
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''United Nations'''
|'''United Nations'''
|'''15,000''' killed{{cite news|url=http://news.sky.com/story/959101/un-considers-syria-sanctions-over-weapons |title=UN Considers Syria Sanctions Over Weapons|agency=Sky News|date=12 July 2012 |accessdate=12 July 2012}}
|'''15,000''' killed<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.sky.com/story/959101/un-considers-syria-sanctions-over-weapons |title=UN Considers Syria Sanctions Over Weapons|agency=Sky News|date=12 July 2012 |accessdate=12 July 2012}}</ref>
|15 March 2011 – 12 July 2012
|15 March 2011&nbsp;– 12 July 2012
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Syrian Observatory for Human Rights'''
|'''Syrian Observatory for Human Rights'''
|'''17,704''' killed
|'''17,704''' killed<ref name=SOHR/>
|15 March 2011 – 13 July 2012
|15 March 2011 – 13 July 2012
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''The Violation Documentation Centre'''
|'''The Violation Documentation Centre'''
|'''18,218''' killed{{cite web|url=http://www.vdc-sy.org/|title=Violations Documenting Center|date=15 July 2012|accessdate=15 July 2012|publisher=Violations Documenting Center|language=Arabic}}{{cite web|url=http://vdc-sy.org/index.php/ar/otherstatistics/|title=Violations Documenting Center|date=15 July 2012|accessdate=15 July 2012|publisher=Violations Documenting Center Other Statistics|language=Arabic}}
|'''18,218''' killed<ref name="Violations Documenting Center">{{cite web|url=http://www.vdc-sy.org/|title=Violations Documenting Center|date=15 July 2012|accessdate=15 July 2012|publisher=Violations Documenting Center|language=Arabic}}</ref><ref name="Violations Documenting Center1">{{cite web|url=http://vdc-sy.org/index.php/ar/otherstatistics/|title=Violations Documenting Center|date=15 July 2012|accessdate=15 July 2012|publisher=Violations Documenting Center Other Statistics|language=Arabic}}</ref>
|15 March 2011 – 15 July 2012
|15 March 2011 – 15 July 2012
|}
|}


Al Jazeera journalist Nir Rosen reported that many of the deaths reported daily by activists are in fact armed insurgents falsely presented as civilian deaths, but confirmed that real civilian deaths do occur on a regular basis. A number of Middle East political analysts, including those from the Lebanese [[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]] newspaper, have also urged caution.{{cite news |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/questioning-syrian-"casualty-list" |title=Questioning the Syrian "Casualty List" |author=Sharmine Narwani |date=28 February 2012 |work=Al-Akhbar |accessdate=17 March 2012}}{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/25/203106.html |title=Eman El-Shenawi: Raising a brow at the Syrian death toll |work=Al Arabiya|date=25 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}{{cite web|url=http://www.rt.com/news/syria-observers-civilians-insurgents-707/ |title=Observers in Syria: Time to separate civilians from insurgents? |publisher=Rt.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
Al Jazeera journalist Nir Rosen reported that many of the deaths reported daily by activists are in fact armed insurgents falsely presented as civilian deaths, but confirmed that real civilian deaths do occur on a regular basis.<ref name=nirrosen/> A number of Middle East political analysts, including those from the Lebanese [[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]] newspaper, have also urged caution.<ref name="Narwani 28Feb2012">{{cite news |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/questioning-syrian-"casualty-list" |title=Questioning the Syrian "Casualty List" |author=Sharmine Narwani |date=28 February 2012 |work=Al-Akhbar |accessdate=17 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/25/203106.html |title=Eman El-Shenawi: Raising a brow at the Syrian death toll |work=Al Arabiya|date=25 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rt.com/news/syria-observers-civilians-insurgents-707/ |title=Observers in Syria: Time to separate civilians from insurgents? |publisher=Rt.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>


This was later confirmed when in late May 2012, Rami Abdulrahman of the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, which is one of the opposition-affiliated groups counting the number of those killed in the uprising, stated that civilians who had taken up arms during the conflict were being counted under the category of "civilians".{{cite news|url=http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/More+than+killed+Syria+since+March+2011/6686552/story.html|title=More than 13,000 killed in Syria since March 2011: NGO|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=27 May 2012|accessdate=27 May 2012}}{{cite web|author=Agence France Presse |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/world/06/10/12/syria-violence-kills-12-revolt-toll-tops-14100 |title=Syria violence kills 12 as revolt toll tops 14,100 |publisher=Abs-cbnnews.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/408099 |title=Over 14,400 killed in 15-month Syria revolt |publisher=Thesundaily.my |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
This was later confirmed when in late May 2012, Rami Abdulrahman of the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, which is one of the opposition-affiliated groups counting the number of those killed in the uprising, stated that civilians who had taken up arms during the conflict were being counted under the category of "civilians".<ref name=morethan13000>{{cite news|url=http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/More+than+killed+Syria+since+March+2011/6686552/story.html|title=More than 13,000 killed in Syria since March 2011: NGO|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=27 May 2012|accessdate=27 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="violence">{{cite web|author=Agence France Presse |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/world/06/10/12/syria-violence-kills-12-revolt-toll-tops-14100 |title=Syria violence kills 12 as revolt toll tops 14,100 |publisher=Abs-cbnnews.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref name=over14400>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/408099 |title=Over 14,400 killed in 15-month Syria revolt |publisher=Thesundaily.my |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>


===Combatant deaths===
===Combatant deaths===
Line 397: Line 399:
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Syrian military and police'''
|'''Syrian military and police'''
|'''4,481-5,000{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.kentucky.com/2012/07/05/2249797/june-was-bloodiest-month-of-syrian.html |title=June was bloodiest month of Syrian uprising, with 3,000 killed |publisher=Kentucky.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}{{cite web|last=Longman |first=James |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18693318 |title='Death or exchange' fate of seized Syrian soldiers |publisher=Bbc.co.uk|accessdate=2012-07-08}}''' killed
|'''4,481<ref name=SOHR/>-5,000<ref name=3000killed>{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.kentucky.com/2012/07/05/2249797/june-was-bloodiest-month-of-syrian.html |title=June was bloodiest month of Syrian uprising, with 3,000 killed |publisher=Kentucky.com |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref name=deathorexchange>{{cite web|last=Longman |first=James |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18693318 |title='Death or exchange' fate of seized Syrian soldiers |publisher=Bbc.co.uk|accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>''' killed
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Shabiha'''
|'''Shabiha'''
|Unknown,{{cite web|url=http://www.geo.tv/GeoDetail.aspx?ID=52428 |title=Syria violence kills 89, including 57 troops: NGO |publisher=Geo.tv |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}} '''68''' conf.19 killed in Dec. 2011,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16984219] 1 killed in Jan. 2012 in Daraa,[http://warnewsradio.org/2012/03/20/syria-rebels-accused-of-human-rights-abuses-live-updates/] 4 killed in Qusayr Feb. 2012,[http://news.apsou.gr/international/news/devastation-despair-and-courage-on-syria%E2%80%99s-bloody-front-line] 11 killed in Damascus suburbs of Maidya in 2012,[http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/07/us-syria-crisis-shabbiha-idUSBRE8560VH20120607] 7 killed in Irbin in 2012,[http://blogs.aljazeera.net/topic/syria/syria-may-9-2012-1230] 26 killed in Darat Izza,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18551693] total of 68 confirmed killed
|Unknown,<small><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geo.tv/GeoDetail.aspx?ID=52428 |title=Syria violence kills 89, including 57 troops: NGO |publisher=Geo.tv |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref></small> '''68''' conf.<small><ref name=Shabiha>19 killed in Dec. 2011,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16984219] 1 killed in Jan. 2012 in Daraa,[http://warnewsradio.org/2012/03/20/syria-rebels-accused-of-human-rights-abuses-live-updates/] 4 killed in Qusayr Feb. 2012,[http://news.apsou.gr/international/news/devastation-despair-and-courage-on-syria%E2%80%99s-bloody-front-line] 11 killed in Damascus suburbs of Maidya in 2012,[http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/07/us-syria-crisis-shabbiha-idUSBRE8560VH20120607] 7 killed in Irbin in 2012,[http://blogs.aljazeera.net/topic/syria/syria-may-9-2012-1230] 26 killed in Darat Izza,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18551693] total of 68 confirmed killed</ref></small>
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Lebanese Hezbollah'''
|'''Lebanese Hezbollah'''
|'''147''' killed{{cite web|author=Michael Kelley |url=http://articles.businessinsider.com/2012-03-08/news/31135034_1_syrian-syrian-president-syrian-soldiers |title=Iranian Fighters Are Killing Syrian Troops Who Refuse to Fire On Protesters |publisher=Articles.businessinsider.com |date=2012-03-08 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}{{cite web|url=http://www.yalibnan.com/2011/12/09/over-120-hezbollah-basij-fighers-killed-in-syria-report/ |title=Over 120 Hezbollah, Basij fighers killed in Syria, report |location=LB |publisher=Yalibnan.com |date=2011-12-09 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
|'''147''' killed<ref name=IranianFighters>{{cite web|author=Michael Kelley |url=http://articles.businessinsider.com/2012-03-08/news/31135034_1_syrian-syrian-president-syrian-soldiers |title=Iranian Fighters Are Killing Syrian Troops Who Refuse to Fire On Protesters |publisher=Articles.businessinsider.com |date=2012-03-08 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref name=over120>{{cite web|url=http://www.yalibnan.com/2011/12/09/over-120-hezbollah-basij-fighers-killed-in-syria-report/ |title=Over 120 Hezbollah, Basij fighers killed in Syria, report |location=LB |publisher=Yalibnan.com |date=2011-12-09 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Iranian [[Basij]]'''
|'''Iranian [[Basij]]'''
|'''85''' killed{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/SpecialSession/CISyria/PeriodicUpdateCISyria.pdf |title=Independent International Commission of Inquiry established pursuant to resolution A/HRC/S-17/1 and extended through resolution A/HRC/Res/19/22 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
|'''85''' killed<ref name=IranianFighters/><ref name=over120/><ref name=ohchr>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/SpecialSession/CISyria/PeriodicUpdateCISyria.pdf |title=Independent International Commission of Inquiry established pursuant to resolution A/HRC/S-17/1 and extended through resolution A/HRC/Res/19/22 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|<span style="color:red;">TOTAL</span>
|TOTAL
|'''4,781-5,300''' killed
|'''4,781-5,300''' killed
|}
|}
Line 418: Line 420:
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Rebels (former soldiers)'''
|'''Rebels (former soldiers)'''
|'''1,918''' killed816 killed (March 2011-January 2012)[http://syrianshuhada.com/Default.asp?lang=en&a=la&p=army&v=1&pp=&vv=&ppp=&vvv=&s=&sb=Date&co=desc] and 1,102 killed (February 2012-July 2012),[http://vdc-sy.org/index.php/ar/martyrs] total 1,918 killed
|'''1,918''' killed<ref>816 killed (March 2011-January 2012)[http://syrianshuhada.com/Default.asp?lang=en&a=la&p=army&v=1&pp=&vv=&ppp=&vvv=&s=&sb=Date&co=desc] and 1,102 killed (February 2012-July 2012),[http://vdc-sy.org/index.php/ar/martyrs] total 1,918 killed</ref>
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Rebels (former civilians)'''
|'''Rebels (former civilians)'''
|'''2,503''' killed2,000 rebels died in Homs province August 1, 2011-April 19, 2012,[http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html] of which 163 were deserters;[http://syrianshuhada.com/Default.asp?lang=en&a=la&p=army&v=1&pp=&vv=&ppp=&vvv=&s=&sb=Date&co=desc] 12 died in Talbiseh June 2012;[http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/06/17/152639/on-the-offensive-rebels-push-syrian.html#storylink=cpy] 23 rebels died in the Battle of Al-Haffah,[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?xfile=data/middleeast/2012/June/middleeast_June131.xml§ion=middleeast] of which 6 were deserters;[http://vdc-sy.org/index.php/ar/martyrs] 600 rebels died in Idlib province February 28, 2011-July 12, 2012,[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/14/world/middleeast/commanders-of-syrian-rebels-unite-in-frustration.html?pagewanted=all] of which 108 were deserters;[http://www.vdc-sy.org/] 14 volunteers died on the Turkish border in June 2012;[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17483891] 6 died at the Crac des Chevaliers in June 2012;[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Jul-05/179413-rebels-defend-syrias-famous-crusader-fort-to-the-death.ashx#axzz1zknuiD2t] 50 died at Tremseh July 12, 2012;[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/14/syria-un-observers-tremseh_n_1673405.html] 49 rebels died 13-14 July 2012,[http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/46610-troops-storm-daraa-at-least-83-killed-across-syria][http://www.marketwatch.com/story/at-least-118-dead-in-new-syria-violence-report-2012-07-14?link=MW_latest_news] of which 24 were deserters;[http://vdc-sy.org/] based on this some 2,503 former civilian rebels have died
|'''2,503''' killed<ref>2,000 rebels died in Homs province August 1, 2011-April 19, 2012,[http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html] of which 163 were deserters;[http://syrianshuhada.com/Default.asp?lang=en&a=la&p=army&v=1&pp=&vv=&ppp=&vvv=&s=&sb=Date&co=desc] 12 died in Talbiseh June 2012;[http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/06/17/152639/on-the-offensive-rebels-push-syrian.html#storylink=cpy] 23 rebels died in the Battle of Al-Haffah,[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?xfile=data/middleeast/2012/June/middleeast_June131.xml&section=middleeast] of which 6 were deserters;[http://vdc-sy.org/index.php/ar/martyrs] 600 rebels died in Idlib province February 28, 2011-July 12, 2012,[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/14/world/middleeast/commanders-of-syrian-rebels-unite-in-frustration.html?pagewanted=all] of which 108 were deserters;[http://www.vdc-sy.org/] 14 volunteers died on the Turkish border in June 2012;[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17483891] 6 died at the Crac des Chevaliers in June 2012;[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Jul-05/179413-rebels-defend-syrias-famous-crusader-fort-to-the-death.ashx#axzz1zknuiD2t] 50 died at Tremseh July 12, 2012;[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/14/syria-un-observers-tremseh_n_1673405.html] 49 rebels died 13-14 July 2012,[http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/46610-troops-storm-daraa-at-least-83-killed-across-syria][http://www.marketwatch.com/story/at-least-118-dead-in-new-syria-violence-report-2012-07-14?link=MW_latest_news] of which 24 were deserters;[http://vdc-sy.org/] based on this some 2,503 former civilian rebels have died</ref>
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|'''Foreign rebel fighters'''
|'''Foreign rebel fighters'''
|'''36''' killed{{cite web|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/sunni-fighters-bring-jihad-across-border/story-e6frg6so-1226405923591 |title=Sunni fighters bring jihad across border |publisher=Theaustralian.com.au |date=2012-02-17 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
|'''36''' killed<ref name=Sunnifighters>{{cite web|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/sunni-fighters-bring-jihad-across-border/story-e6frg6so-1226405923591 |title=Sunni fighters bring jihad across border |publisher=Theaustralian.com.au |date=2012-02-17 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
|- valign=top
|- valign=top
|<span style="color:red;">TOTAL</span>
|TOTAL
|'''4,457''' killed
|'''4,457''' killed
|}
|}
Line 435: Line 437:
! Country !! Number of deaths
! Country !! Number of deaths
|-
|-
| [[Palestine]] || 115
| [[Palestine]] || 115<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[Lebanon]] || 15{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2012/Apr-07/169560-lebanese-killed-15-wounded-after-bus-hit-on-lebanon-syria-border.ashx#axzz1zEDfTuxH |title=Lebanon-Syria border bus attack kills 7, wounds 21 |publisher=Dailystar.com.lb |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}{{cite web|url=http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE86602Y20120707 |title=Syria's fighting spills into Lebanon, five killed |publisher=Af.reuters.com |date=2009-02-09 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}[http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=276911 Three dead after more Syrian shells hit Lebanon]
| [[Lebanon]] || 15<ref name="shuhadanationality"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2012/Apr-07/169560-lebanese-killed-15-wounded-after-bus-hit-on-lebanon-syria-border.ashx#axzz1zEDfTuxH |title=Lebanon-Syria border bus attack kills 7, wounds 21 |publisher=Dailystar.com.lb |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE86602Y20120707 |title=Syria's fighting spills into Lebanon, five killed |publisher=Af.reuters.com |date=2009-02-09 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref>[http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=276911 Three dead after more Syrian shells hit Lebanon]</ref>
|-
|-
| [[Turkey]] || 6{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-275326-third-turkish-truck-driver-killed-in-syrian-violence-in-past-10-days.html |title=Third Turkish truck driver killed in Syrian violence in past 10 days |publisher=Todayszaman.com |date=2012-03-25 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}{{cite web|url=http://www.aa.com.tr/en/news/54427--s |title=One Turk killed in crossfire in Syria |publisher=Aa.com.tr |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
| [[Turkey]] || 6<ref name="shuhadanationality"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-275326-third-turkish-truck-driver-killed-in-syrian-violence-in-past-10-days.html |title=Third Turkish truck driver killed in Syrian violence in past 10 days |publisher=Todayszaman.com |date=2012-03-25 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aa.com.tr/en/news/54427--s |title=One Turk killed in crossfire in Syria |publisher=Aa.com.tr |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
|-
|-
| [[Tunisia]] || 5
| [[Tunisia]] || 5<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[Egypt]] || 3
| [[Egypt]] || 3<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[Iraq]] || 3
| [[Iraq]] || 3<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[Jordan]] || 3
| [[Jordan]] || 3<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[France]] || 2
| [[France]] || 2<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[United Kingdom]] || 2{{cite web|last=Greenslade |first=Roy |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/greenslade/2012/mar/28/journalist-safety-syria |title=Two British journalists killed in Syria |publisher=Guardian |date=2012-03-28 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
| [[United Kingdom]] || 2<ref>{{cite web|last=Greenslade |first=Roy |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/greenslade/2012/mar/28/journalist-safety-syria |title=Two British journalists killed in Syria |publisher=Guardian |date=2012-03-28 |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>
|-
|-
| [[Libya]] || 1
| [[Libya]] || 1<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[Saudi Arabia]] || 1
| [[Saudi Arabia]] || 1<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[Sudan]] || 1
| [[Sudan]] || 1<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| [[United States]] || 1
| [[United States]] || 1<ref name="shuhadanationality"/>
|-
|-
| Total || 158
| Total || 158
Line 469: Line 471:


====Concessions====
====Concessions====
On 19 March 2011 by legislative decree 35, Assad shortened the length of mandatory army [[conscription]] from 21 months to 18 months.{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/19/us-syria-idUSTRE72I22020110319 |title=Syrian mourners call for revolt, forces fire tear gas |agency=Reuters |date=19 March 2011 |accessdate=19 March 2011 }} On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.{{Cite news |title=Syria to free child prisoners |work=Al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011320113138901721.html |date=20 March 2011 |accessdate=20 March 2011 }} On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa.{{cite news |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2011/03/24/pr-338181.htm |title=President al-Assad Issues Decree on Discharging Governor of Daraa from His Post |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |date=24 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }} On 24 March, Assad's media adviser, [[Buthaina Shaaban]], said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 [[Syrian pound]]s ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase [[press freedom]], create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.{{cite news |title=In Syrian flashpoint town, more deaths reported |work=CNN |date=25 March 2011 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/03/25/syria.unrest/index.html |accessdate=25 March 2011 }}
On 19 March 2011 by legislative decree 35, Assad shortened the length of mandatory army [[conscription]] from 21 months to 18 months.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/19/us-syria-idUSTRE72I22020110319 |title=Syrian mourners call for revolt, forces fire tear gas |agency=Reuters |date=19 March 2011 |accessdate=19 March 2011 }}</ref> On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syria to free child prisoners |work=Al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011320113138901721.html |date=20 March 2011 |accessdate=20 March 2011 }}</ref> On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2011/03/24/pr-338181.htm |title=President al-Assad Issues Decree on Discharging Governor of Daraa from His Post |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |date=24 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref> On 24 March, Assad's media adviser, [[Buthaina Shaaban]], said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 [[Syrian pound]]s ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase [[press freedom]], create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.<ref name=cnn25311>{{cite news |title=In Syrian flashpoint town, more deaths reported |work=CNN |date=25 March 2011 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/03/25/syria.unrest/index.html |accessdate=25 March 2011 }}</ref>


On 26 March, Syrian authorities freed 260 political prisoners – 70 according to other sources – mostly Islamists, held in Saidnaya prison.{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/26/syria-prisoners-idUSLDE72P06120110326 |title=Syrian authorities release 260 prisoners – lawyer |date=26 March 2011 |accessdate=16 December 2011 |agency=Reuters }} On 27 March, Bouthaina Shaaban confirmed that the emergency law would be lifted, but did not say when.{{cite news |title=Syria 'to lift emergency law' |work=Al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132711553545999.html |date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=27 March 2011 }} On 29 March, the [[Cabinet of Syria|Syrian cabinet]] submitted its official resignation to Assad. On 31 March, Assad set up a committee of legal experts to study legislation that would pave the way to replacing decades-old emergency laws. The committee was to complete its study by 25 April. Assad also set up a judicial committee tasked with investigating the circumstances that led to the death of Syrian civilians and security forces in the cities of Daraa and Latakia.{{cite news |title=Assad orders review of Syrian laws |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201133113439956857.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 March 2011 |accessdate=1 April 2011 }}
On 26 March, Syrian authorities freed 260 political prisoners&nbsp;– 70 according to other sources&nbsp;– mostly Islamists, held in Saidnaya prison.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/26/syria-prisoners-idUSLDE72P06120110326 |title=Syrian authorities release 260 prisoners – lawyer |date=26 March 2011 |accessdate=16 December 2011 |agency=Reuters }}</ref> On 27 March, Bouthaina Shaaban confirmed that the emergency law would be lifted, but did not say when.<ref name=AJE270311>{{cite news |title=Syria 'to lift emergency law' |work=Al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132711553545999.html |date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=27 March 2011 }}</ref> On 29 March, the [[Cabinet of Syria|Syrian cabinet]] submitted its official resignation to Assad.<ref name=AJSyriaGovQuit/> On 31 March, Assad set up a committee of legal experts to study legislation that would pave the way to replacing decades-old emergency laws. The committee was to complete its study by 25 April. Assad also set up a judicial committee tasked with investigating the circumstances that led to the death of Syrian civilians and security forces in the cities of Daraa and Latakia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Assad orders review of Syrian laws |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201133113439956857.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 March 2011 |accessdate=1 April 2011 }}</ref>


The government, dominated by the [[Alawi]]te sect, also made some concessions to the majority Sunni and some minority populations in April. On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the [[Niqāb|niqab]], and that the government had closed the country's only casino.{{Cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/04/06/144466.html |title=Syria Reverses Ban on Islamic Face Veil in Schools |date=6 April 2011 |agency=Associated Press |work=Al Arabiya |accessdate=1 February 2012 |location=Damascus }} Of the 200,000 descendants of Syrian Kurds denied citizenship in 1962, 120,000 who were labeled "foreigners" were granted citizenship.
The government, dominated by the [[Alawi]]te sect, also made some concessions to the majority Sunni and some minority populations in April. On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the [[Niqāb|niqab]], and that the government had closed the country's only casino.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/04/06/144466.html |title=Syria Reverses Ban on Islamic Face Veil in Schools |date=6 April 2011 |agency=Associated Press |work=Al Arabiya |accessdate=1 February 2012 |location=Damascus }}</ref> Of the 200,000 descendants of Syrian Kurds denied citizenship in 1962, 120,000 who were labeled "foreigners" were granted citizenship.<ref name=articles.cnn.com/>


On 7 April, Assad relieved the Governor of [[Homs Governorate|Homs province]] from his duties and issued a decree granting nationality to thousands of Kurds living in the eastern [[Hasakah Governorate|al Hasakah province]]{{cite news |title=Assad attempts to appease minority Kurds |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114711251531744.html |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2011 |work=Al Jazeera }} while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the 48 Kurds were released, more than a year after they were arrested in the eastern city of [[Raqqa]].{{Cite news |title=Syria Frees 48 Kurds, Hoping To Ease Grievances |url=http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFTRE7361P720110407 |work=Reuters Africa |agency=Reuters |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2011 }} This came a day after Assad met with Kurdish tribal leaders to discuss citizenship issues concerning the Kurds of Syria’s north-eastern provinces, as hundreds of thousands of Kurds were stripped of their citizenship rights as a result of the 1962 national census.{{cite news |title=Syrian Kurds to enjoy citizenship rights |work=Voice of Russia |url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/04/06/48519940.html |date=6 April 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2011 }}
On 7 April, Assad relieved the Governor of [[Homs Governorate|Homs province]] from his duties and issued a decree granting nationality to thousands of Kurds living in the eastern [[Hasakah Governorate|al Hasakah province]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Assad attempts to appease minority Kurds |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114711251531744.html |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2011 |work=Al Jazeera }}</ref> while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the 48 Kurds were released, more than a year after they were arrested in the eastern city of [[Raqqa]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syria Frees 48 Kurds, Hoping To Ease Grievances |url=http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFTRE7361P720110407 |work=Reuters Africa |agency=Reuters |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2011 }}</ref> This came a day after Assad met with Kurdish tribal leaders to discuss citizenship issues concerning the Kurds of Syria’s north-eastern provinces, as hundreds of thousands of Kurds were stripped of their citizenship rights as a result of the 1962 national census.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian Kurds to enjoy citizenship rights |work=Voice of Russia |url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/04/06/48519940.html |date=6 April 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2011 }}</ref>


On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law.{{cite news |title=Syria to lift decades-old emergency law |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011419135036463804.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=19 April 2011 |accessdate=19 April 2011 }} Two days later, Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law, together with decrees abolishing the [[Supreme State Security Court]] and regulating the right to peaceful demonstration.{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad ends state of emergency |first1=Khaled Yacoub |last1=Oweis |first2=Mariam |last2=Karouny |first3=Suleiman |last3=al-Khalidi |first4=Sami |last4=Aboudi |location=Beirut, Amman, Cairo |agency=Reuters |date=21 April 2011 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/21/us-syria-idUSTRE72N2MC20110421 |accessdate=21 April 2011 }} On 30 April, Prime Minister [[Adel Safar]] announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.{{cite news |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2011/05/01/344191.htm |title=Cabinet: Comprehensive Plan for Reform in Various Fields, Employment Programs in Private Sector |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |date=1 May 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}
On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria to lift decades-old emergency law |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011419135036463804.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=19 April 2011 |accessdate=19 April 2011 }}</ref> Two days later, Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law, together with decrees abolishing the [[Supreme State Security Court]] and regulating the right to peaceful demonstration.<ref name=R210411>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad ends state of emergency |first1=Khaled Yacoub |last1=Oweis |first2=Mariam |last2=Karouny |first3=Suleiman |last3=al-Khalidi |first4=Sami |last4=Aboudi |location=Beirut, Amman, Cairo |agency=Reuters |date=21 April 2011 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/21/us-syria-idUSTRE72N2MC20110421 |accessdate=21 April 2011 }}</ref> On 30 April, Prime Minister [[Adel Safar]] announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2011/05/01/344191.htm |title=Cabinet: Comprehensive Plan for Reform in Various Fields, Employment Programs in Private Sector |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |date=1 May 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref>


On 28 December, the state released 755 detainees "whose hands were not stained with Syrian blood".{{cite news |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/syria-releases-755-detainees-state-tv |title=Syria releases 755 detainees – state TV |date=28 December 2011 |accessdate=28 December 2011 |work=Trust |agency=Reuters }} As part of the Arab League peace plan, Syria released 3,500 prisoners on 3 January and a further 552 detainees on 5 January 2012.{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2777456.ece |title=Syria releases 552 political prisoners |date=5 January 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |agency=Associated Press |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India}} On 15 January, president Al-Assad issued a [[amnesty|general amnesty]] for those imprisoned for crimes committed in the context of the uprising.{{cite news |url=http://rt.com/news/general-amnesty-uprising-crimes-821/ |title=Syria's Assad grants general amnesty 'for uprising crimes' |date=15 January 2012 |accessdate=22 January 2012 |work=[[Russia Today]] }} According to state news agency SANA, 5,255 detainees have been released as of 22 January, with the release of further prisoners still continuing.{{cite news |url=http://www.sana.sy/eng/337/2012/01/22/395766.htm |title=5,255 Detainees Set Free Due to Amnesty Decree No. 10 for 2012 |date=22 January 2012 |accessdate=22 January 2012 |work=Syrian Arab News Agency }}
On 28 December, the state released 755 detainees "whose hands were not stained with Syrian blood".<ref name=R281211>{{cite news |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/syria-releases-755-detainees-state-tv |title=Syria releases 755 detainees – state TV |date=28 December 2011 |accessdate=28 December 2011 |work=Trust |agency=Reuters }}</ref> As part of the Arab League peace plan, Syria released 3,500 prisoners on 3 January and a further 552 detainees on 5 January 2012.<ref name=AP050112>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2777456.ece |title=Syria releases 552 political prisoners |date=5 January 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |agency=Associated Press |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> On 15 January, president Al-Assad issued a [[amnesty|general amnesty]] for those imprisoned for crimes committed in the context of the uprising.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://rt.com/news/general-amnesty-uprising-crimes-821/ |title=Syria's Assad grants general amnesty 'for uprising crimes' |date=15 January 2012 |accessdate=22 January 2012 |work=[[Russia Today]] }}</ref> According to state news agency SANA, 5,255 detainees have been released as of 22 January, with the release of further prisoners still continuing.<ref name=SANA220112>{{cite news |url=http://www.sana.sy/eng/337/2012/01/22/395766.htm |title=5,255 Detainees Set Free Due to Amnesty Decree No. 10 for 2012 |date=22 January 2012 |accessdate=22 January 2012 |work=Syrian Arab News Agency }}</ref>


On 15 February, Syrian state television announced that the government would hold a referendum on a new constitution on 26 February, in an attempt to end the conflict.{{cite web |url=http://rt.com/news/syria-referendum-new-constitution-365/ |title=Syrian referendum on new constitution announced for 26 Feb. |date=15 February 2012 |accessdate=15 February 2012 |work=[[Russia Today]] }} One of the amendments in the draft would replace the old article 8, which entrenches the power of the Ba'ath party, with a new article reading: ''The state's political system is based on political pluralism and power is practiced democratically through voting.''{{cite web |url=http://www.metronews.ca/ottawa/world/article/1098791--syria-to-hold-referendum-on-new-draft-constitution |title=Syria to hold referendum on new draft constitution |date=15 February 2012 |accessdate=15 February 2012 |work=Metronews.ca }} Syrians voted in favour of the new constitution on 26 February.{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/latest_news.php?nid=36070|title=Syria holds vote on constitution|date=26 February 2012|accessdate=29 February 2012|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}} [[Syrian parliamentary election, 2012|Parliamentary elections]] were held in May after the ratification of the new constitution.{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/15/us-syria-election-idUSTRE81E0N520120215 |title=Syria parliament election 90 days after new constitution |date=15 February 2012 |accessdate=15 February 2012 |agency=Reuters }} After the elections, [[Mohammad Jihad al-Laham]] was elected as the new [[List of speakers of the parliament of Syria|Syrian speaker of parliament]].{{cite web|author=Syrian Arab News Agency: SANA, Damascus Syria - syria news |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2012/05/25/421043.htm |title=1st Meeting of People's Assembly, Mohammad Jihad al-Laham Elected as Speaker |publisher=Sana.sy |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}
On 15 February, Syrian state television announced that the government would hold a referendum on a new constitution on 26 February, in an attempt to end the conflict.<ref name=RT150212>{{cite web |url=http://rt.com/news/syria-referendum-new-constitution-365/ |title=Syrian referendum on new constitution announced for 26 Feb. |date=15 February 2012 |accessdate=15 February 2012 |work=[[Russia Today]] }}</ref> One of the amendments in the draft would replace the old article 8, which entrenches the power of the Ba'ath party, with a new article reading: ''The state's political system is based on political pluralism and power is practiced democratically through voting.''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metronews.ca/ottawa/world/article/1098791--syria-to-hold-referendum-on-new-draft-constitution |title=Syria to hold referendum on new draft constitution |date=15 February 2012 |accessdate=15 February 2012 |work=Metronews.ca }}</ref> Syrians voted in favour of the new constitution on 26 February.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/latest_news.php?nid=36070|title=Syria holds vote on constitution|date=26 February 2012|accessdate=29 February 2012|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]}}</ref> [[Syrian parliamentary election, 2012|Parliamentary elections]] were held in May after the ratification of the new constitution.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/15/us-syria-election-idUSTRE81E0N520120215 |title=Syria parliament election 90 days after new constitution |date=15 February 2012 |accessdate=15 February 2012 |agency=Reuters }}</ref> After the elections, [[Mohammad Jihad al-Laham]] was elected as the new [[List of speakers of the parliament of Syria|Syrian speaker of parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Syrian Arab News Agency: SANA, Damascus Syria - syria news |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2012/05/25/421043.htm |title=1st Meeting of People's Assembly, Mohammad Jihad al-Laham Elected as Speaker |publisher=Sana.sy |date= |accessdate=2012-07-08}}</ref>


Assad has been forced to institute subsidies on basic necessities and move away from his market-orientated economic reforms that had only been benefiting the narrow, top sector of society.{{cite news |last= Al-Khalidi |first= Suleiman |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension |url= uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/syria-economy-socialist-idUKL6E8I3BTA20120704 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}
Assad has been forced to institute subsidies on basic necessities and move away from his market-orientated economic reforms that had only been benefiting the narrow, top sector of society.<ref>{{cite news |last= Al-Khalidi |first= Suleiman |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension |url= uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/syria-economy-socialist-idUKL6E8I3BTA20120704 |agency= Reuters |accessdate= 9 July 2012 }}</ref>


====Censorship====
====Censorship====
On 5 February 2011, there were reports that the government was limiting internet services, though Facebook and YouTube were reported to have been restored three days later.{{Cite news|last=Preston|first=Jennifer|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html|title=Syria Restores Access to Facebook and YouTube|work=The New York Times|date=9 February 2011}} Suggestions were made that easing the ban could be a way to track activists.{{cite news|last=York|first=Jillian|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/02/2011212122746819907.html|title=Unblocking Syria's Social Media|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=13 February 2011}}
On 5 February 2011, there were reports that the government was limiting internet services, though Facebook and YouTube were reported to have been restored three days later.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Preston|first=Jennifer|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html|title=Syria Restores Access to Facebook and YouTube|work=The New York Times|date=9 February 2011}}</ref> Suggestions were made that easing the ban could be a way to track activists.<ref>{{cite news|last=York|first=Jillian|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/02/2011212122746819907.html|title=Unblocking Syria's Social Media|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=13 February 2011}}</ref>
In August 2011, Syrian security forces attacked the country's best-known political [[cartoon]]ist, [[Ali Farzat]], a noted critic of Syria's government and its crackdown. Relatives of the severely beaten humorist told Western media that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat, who recently celebrated his 60th birthday, was hospitalized with fractures in both hands and blunt force [[Blunt trauma|trauma]] to the head. Also, government loyalists have been blamed for cutting the vocal cords of poets and other censorship crimes of this nature.{{cite news |first=Nour |last=Ali |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |title=Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat |work=The Guardian |date= 25 August 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 |location=London}}
In August 2011, Syrian security forces attacked the country's best-known political [[cartoon]]ist, [[Ali Farzat]], a noted critic of Syria's government and its crackdown. Relatives of the severely beaten humorist told Western media that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat, who recently celebrated his 60th birthday, was hospitalized with fractures in both hands and blunt force [[Blunt trauma|trauma]] to the head. Also, government loyalists have been blamed for cutting the vocal cords of poets and other censorship crimes of this nature.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nour |last=Ali |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |title=Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat |work=The Guardian |date= 25 August 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 |location=London}}</ref>


====Human rights violations====
====Human rights violations====
{{main|Human rights violations during the Syrian Uprising}}
{{main|Human rights violations during the Syrian Uprising}}
The "vast majority" of human rights violations, including the [[International criminal law|international crimes]], documented have been committed by the Syrian armed and security forces and their allied militia.{{rp|4}}{{rp|1}}{{rp|10}}{{citation |separator= . |title= Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/SY/A.HRC.S-17.2.Add.1_en.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 23 November 2011 |accessdate= 23 June 2012 }}{{rp|20}} Some violations are so serious, deliberate and systematic as to constitute [[crimes against humanity]]{{rp|5}}{{rp|7}}{{rp|18–20}}{{citation |separator= . |title= "We've Never Seen Such Horror": Crimes against Humanity by Syrian Security Forces |url= http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0611webwcover.pdf |publisher= Human Rights Watch |month= June |year= 2011 |accessdate= 3 July 2012 }} and war crimes.{{rp|7}} Human Rights Watch accused the Assad government of creating an "archipelago of torture centers".{{citation |separator= . |title= Torture Archipelago: Arbitrary Arrests, Torture and Enforced Disappearances in Syria's Underground Prisons since March 2011 |url= http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0712webwcover.pdf |publisher= Human Rights Watch |month= July |year= 2012 |accessdate= 3 July 2012 }}{{rp|1}} The key role in the repression, and particularly torture, is played by the ''mukhabarat'': the Department of Military Intelligence, the Political Security Directorate, the General Intelligence Directorate, and the Air Force Intelligence Directorate.{{rp|9}}{{rp|1, 35}}
The "vast majority" of human rights violations, including the [[International criminal law|international crimes]], documented have been committed by the Syrian armed and security forces and their allied militia.<ref name = "UN preliminary"/>{{rp|4}}<ref name = "UN update"/>{{rp|1}}<ref name = "deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|10}}<ref name = "UN Nov11">{{citation |separator= . |title= Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/SY/A.HRC.S-17.2.Add.1_en.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 23 November 2011 |accessdate= 23 June 2012 }}</ref>{{rp|20}} Some violations are so serious, deliberate and systematic as to constitute [[crimes against humanity]]<ref name = "OHCHR Sep11"/>{{rp|5}}<ref name = "deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|7}}<ref name = "UN Nov11"/>{{rp|18–20}}<ref name = "HRW CaH">{{citation |separator= . |title= "We've Never Seen Such Horror": Crimes against Humanity by Syrian Security Forces |url= http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0611webwcover.pdf |publisher= Human Rights Watch |month= June |year= 2011 |accessdate= 3 July 2012 }}</ref> and war crimes.<ref name = "deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|7}} Human Rights Watch accused the Assad government of creating an "archipelago of torture centers".<ref name = "HRW arch">{{citation |separator= . |title= Torture Archipelago: Arbitrary Arrests, Torture and Enforced Disappearances in Syria's Underground Prisons since March 2011 |url= http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0712webwcover.pdf |publisher= Human Rights Watch |month= July |year= 2012 |accessdate= 3 July 2012 }}</ref>{{rp|1}} The key role in the repression, and particularly torture, is played by the ''mukhabarat'': the Department of Military Intelligence, the Political Security Directorate, the General Intelligence Directorate, and the Air Force Intelligence Directorate.<ref name = "OHCHR Sep11"/>{{rp|9}}<ref name = "HRW arch"/>{{rp|1, 35}}


With regard to armed opposition groups, the UN accused them of: unlawful killing; torture and ill-treatment; kidnapping and hostage taking; and the use of children in dangerous non-combat roles.{{rp|4–5}}
With regard to armed opposition groups, the UN accused them of: unlawful killing; torture and ill-treatment; kidnapping and hostage taking; and the use of children in dangerous non-combat roles.<ref name = "UN update"/>{{rp|4–5}}


====Rallies in support of the Assad government====
====Rallies in support of the Assad government====
[[File:Tishreen University pro-Asad demo.jpg|thumb|Pro-government demonstration at Tishreen University]]
[[File:Tishreen University pro-Asad demo.jpg|thumb|Pro-government demonstration at Tishreen University]]
Since the start of the uprising, large crowds have rallied in the support of the Assad government, especially in the cities of Damascus,{{Cite news|title=Massive pro-Assad rallies in Syria |first=Atul|last=Aneja |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=21 November 2011 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2624318.ece |accessdate=28 November 2011 |location=Chennai, India}}{{cite news|url=http://mwcnews.net/news/middle-east/14395-pro-assad-rally.html |title=Pro-Assad rally in Syria draws thousands |work=MwcNews|date=26 October 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}} Aleppo,{{Cite news |title=Syria unrest: Aleppo sees huge pro-Assad rally |date=19 October 2011 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15373531 |accessdate=28 November 2011}} [[Tartus]],{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpkbcIPmkmg|title=Pro Assad Rally – 10 – Tartous, 03-11-2011 |publisher=YouTube |accessdate=20 January 2012}} and [[Lattakia]]{{Cite news |title=Lattakia pro-Assad rally draws tens of thousands, security forces kill 9 |work=[[Daily Star (Lebanon)|The Daily Star]] |location=Beirut |date=28 October 2011 |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2011/Oct-28/152447-lattakia-pro-assad-rally-draws-tens-of-thousands-security-forces-kill-9.ashx |accessdate=28 November 2011}} Such rallies have been held since March 2011, and particularly following the suspension of Syria from the Arab League.
Since the start of the uprising, large crowds have rallied in the support of the Assad government, especially in the cities of Damascus,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Massive pro-Assad rallies in Syria |first=Atul|last=Aneja |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=21 November 2011 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2624318.ece |accessdate=28 November 2011 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://mwcnews.net/news/middle-east/14395-pro-assad-rally.html |title=Pro-Assad rally in Syria draws thousands |work=MwcNews|date=26 October 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref> Aleppo,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syria unrest: Aleppo sees huge pro-Assad rally |date=19 October 2011 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15373531 |accessdate=28 November 2011}}</ref> [[Tartus]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpkbcIPmkmg|title=Pro Assad Rally&nbsp;– 10&nbsp;– Tartous, 03-11-2011 |publisher=YouTube |accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref> and [[Lattakia]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Lattakia pro-Assad rally draws tens of thousands, security forces kill 9 |work=[[Daily Star (Lebanon)|The Daily Star]] |location=Beirut |date=28 October 2011 |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2011/Oct-28/152447-lattakia-pro-assad-rally-draws-tens-of-thousands-security-forces-kill-9.ashx |accessdate=28 November 2011}}</ref> Such rallies have been held since March 2011, and particularly following the suspension of Syria from the Arab League.


''[[The Guardian]]'' reported on 22 March that one response of the Syrian authorities to the unrest was to organise pro-Assad rallies.{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/22/syrian-protests-troops-kill-deraa |title = Syrian uprising spread after troops kill at least five |work=The Guardian |date=22 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011 |first=Katherine |last=Marsh |location=London}} Pro-Assad rallies were held in the capital city of Damascus on 25 March.{{cite web |last1= Fassihi |first1= Farnaz |last2= Solomon |first2= Jay |date= 26 March 2011 |title= Syria Regime Rocked by Protests |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704517404576222350109783770.html |publisher= WSJ.com |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }} In mid-June, rallies in support of Assad and his government increased; protests held in front of the French and Turkish embassies over their condemnations of the Syrian government's response to the unrest, and on 15 June, people at a pro-government demonstration in Damascus carried a 2.3 kilometre-long Syrian flag down Mezzeh boulevard.{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13776886 |title=Damascus show of support for Syrian President Assad |work=BBC News |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }} State television reported that two million people attended to express Syrian national unity and Syria's rejection of foreign interference in its internal affairs.{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011615501460629.html |title=Syrians flee imminent assault on town |work=Al Jazeera |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }}
''[[The Guardian]]'' reported on 22 March that one response of the Syrian authorities to the unrest was to organise pro-Assad rallies.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/22/syrian-protests-troops-kill-deraa |title = Syrian uprising spread after troops kill at least five |work=The Guardian |date=22 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011 |first=Katherine |last=Marsh |location=London}}</ref> Pro-Assad rallies were held in the capital city of Damascus on 25 March.<ref name=wsj25311>{{cite web |last1= Fassihi |first1= Farnaz |last2= Solomon |first2= Jay |date= 26 March 2011 |title= Syria Regime Rocked by Protests |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704517404576222350109783770.html |publisher= WSJ.com |accessdate= 30 June 2012 }}</ref> In mid-June, rallies in support of Assad and his government increased; protests held in front of the French and Turkish embassies over their condemnations of the Syrian government's response to the unrest, and on 15 June, people at a pro-government demonstration in Damascus carried a 2.3 kilometre-long Syrian flag down Mezzeh boulevard.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13776886 |title=Damascus show of support for Syrian President Assad |work=BBC News |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }}</ref> State television reported that two million people attended to express Syrian national unity and Syria's rejection of foreign interference in its internal affairs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011615501460629.html |title=Syrians flee imminent assault on town |work=Al Jazeera |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }}</ref>


The day after Assad addressed the nation on 20 June, state television reported that over one million people gathered in Umayyad Square in Damascus, and there were demonstrations in Homs, Aleppo, Sweida, Lattakia, Deraa, Hasaka, Tartus, and elsewhere to express support for the reforms the president said he would carry out.{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/06/21/Assad-issues-amnesty-in-bid-to-woo-public/UPI-65461308655078/ |title=Assad issues amnesty in bid to woo public |date=21 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 |agency=United Press International }}
The day after Assad addressed the nation on 20 June, state television reported that over one million people gathered in Umayyad Square in Damascus, and there were demonstrations in Homs, Aleppo, Sweida, Lattakia, Deraa, Hasaka, Tartus, and elsewhere to express support for the reforms the president said he would carry out.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/06/21/Assad-issues-amnesty-in-bid-to-woo-public/UPI-65461308655078/ |title=Assad issues amnesty in bid to woo public |date=21 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 |agency=United Press International }}</ref>


====Other====
====Other====
On 15 January 2012, [[Syrian Arab News Agency|SANA]], the official Syrian news agency, announced a "general amnesty for crimes committed" during the uprising. The amnesty covered the period between 15 March 2011 and 15 January 2012.{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Jan-15/159910-syria-issues-amnesty-for-crimes-during-uprising.ashx#axzz1lBY0ER00 |title=Assad decrees general amnesty over unrest: SANA |work=The Lebanon Daily Star |accessdate=22 February 2012 |date=15 January 2012 |agency=Agence France-Presse |location=Damascus }} Hours later, Syrian authorities released 80-year-old former judge [[Haitham al-Maleh]], one of Assad's most outspoken critics, under an amnesty marking the anniversary of the [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|1963 coup]] which brought the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath Party]] to power. Twelve Syrian human rights organisations called on the government to scrap the [[state of emergency]] which had been in effect for almost 50 years.{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jVJSMH9FyXYejUJ-MoOUniMK6CBg?docId=CNG.08dc880232fd4c049d2f1a10f4641409.cf1 |title=12 rights groups in Syria demand end to emergency |agency=Agence France-Presse |work=Google News |date=8 March 2011 |location=Damascus |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}
On 15 January 2012, [[Syrian Arab News Agency|SANA]], the official Syrian news agency, announced a "general amnesty for crimes committed" during the uprising. The amnesty covered the period between 15 March 2011 and 15 January 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Jan-15/159910-syria-issues-amnesty-for-crimes-during-uprising.ashx#axzz1lBY0ER00 |title=Assad decrees general amnesty over unrest: SANA |work=The Lebanon Daily Star |accessdate=22 February 2012 |date=15 January 2012 |agency=Agence France-Presse |location=Damascus }}</ref> Hours later, Syrian authorities released 80-year-old former judge [[Haitham al-Maleh]], one of Assad's most outspoken critics, under an amnesty marking the anniversary of the [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|1963 coup]] which brought the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party&nbsp;– Syria Region|Ba'ath Party]] to power. Twelve Syrian human rights organisations called on the government to scrap the [[state of emergency]] which had been in effect for almost 50 years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jVJSMH9FyXYejUJ-MoOUniMK6CBg?docId=CNG.08dc880232fd4c049d2f1a10f4641409.cf1 |title=12 rights groups in Syria demand end to emergency |agency=Agence France-Presse |work=Google News |date=8 March 2011 |location=Damascus |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref>


On 16 February, government critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of [[Rifaat al-Assad]] and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power".{{cite news |url=http://www.elaph.com/Web/news/2011/2/632409.html |title=Opposition leader Ribal Al-Assad is optimistic to changes in Syria |work=Elaph |date=16 February 2011 |accessdate=16 February 2011 }} In a 5 April interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war.{{cite news |url=http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=257946 |agency=Agence France-Presse |title=Assad's exiled cousin warns Syria risks civil war |work=NOW Lebanon |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=20 April 2011 }}
On 16 February, government critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of [[Rifaat al-Assad]] and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elaph.com/Web/news/2011/2/632409.html |title=Opposition leader Ribal Al-Assad is optimistic to changes in Syria |work=Elaph |date=16 February 2011 |accessdate=16 February 2011 }}</ref> In a 5 April interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=257946 |agency=Agence France-Presse |title=Assad's exiled cousin warns Syria risks civil war |work=NOW Lebanon |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=20 April 2011 }}</ref>


A [[Syrian American]] man, [[Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid]], was charged by U.S. [[federal prosecutor]]s on 5 October with tracking [[Syrian American]]s supporting the uprising in the United States and passing information to Syrian authorities, who then arrested family members of the dissidents living in Syria. The U.S. government alleges that Soueid met with Assad during a two-week trip to Syria in summer 2011.{{cite news|first=J. David|last=Goodman|title=U.S. Accuses Virginia Man of Espionage at Syria Protests|date=12 October 2011|work=New York Times|url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/12/u-s-accuses-virginia-man-of-espionage-at-syria-protests/|accessdate=22 February 2012}}
A [[Syrian American]] man, [[Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid]], was charged by U.S. [[federal prosecutor]]s on 5 October with tracking [[Syrian American]]s supporting the uprising in the United States and passing information to Syrian authorities, who then arrested family members of the dissidents living in Syria. The U.S. government alleges that Soueid met with Assad during a two-week trip to Syria in summer 2011.<ref>{{cite news|first=J. David|last=Goodman|title=U.S. Accuses Virginia Man of Espionage at Syria Protests|date=12 October 2011|work=New York Times|url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/12/u-s-accuses-virginia-man-of-espionage-at-syria-protests/|accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref>


In October, [[Amnesty International]] published a report showing that at least 30 Syrian dissidents living in Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, faced intimidation by Syrian embassy officials, and that in some cases, their relatives in Syria were harassed, detained and tortured. Syrian embassy officials in London and Washington, D.C. were alleged to have taken photographs and videos of local Syrian dissidents and sent them to Syrian authorities, who then retaliated against their families.{{cite news|last=Mozgovaya |first=Natasha |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/u-s-raps-syria-over-claim-of-photographing-d-c-demonstrations-1.372268 |title=U.S. raps Syria over claim of photographing D.C. demonstrations|work=Haaretz|date=7 June 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}
In October, [[Amnesty International]] published a report showing that at least 30 Syrian dissidents living in Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, faced intimidation by Syrian embassy officials, and that in some cases, their relatives in Syria were harassed, detained and tortured. Syrian embassy officials in London and Washington, D.C. were alleged to have taken photographs and videos of local Syrian dissidents and sent them to Syrian authorities, who then retaliated against their families.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mozgovaya |first=Natasha |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/u-s-raps-syria-over-claim-of-photographing-d-c-demonstrations-1.372268 |title=U.S. raps Syria over claim of photographing D.C. demonstrations|work=Haaretz|date=7 June 2011|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref>


On 4 June, Channel 4 News's chief correspondent Alex Thompson stated that Syrian rebels he was with had purposely tried to lead him and his team into a death trap so that they would be killed by gunfire from government forces in an alleged bid to discredit the Assad regime. Thomson stated that they were trying to return to government lines when their rebel escort led them down what he described as a dead-end in the middle of a "free-fire zone".{{cite news |title= Channel 4 journalist Alex Thomson says Syria rebels led me into death trap |url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9321068/Channel-4-journalist-Alex-Thomson-says-Syria-rebels-led-me-into-death-trap.html |publisher= telegraph.co.uk |date= 9 June 2012 |accessdate= 14 June 2012 }}
On 4 June, Channel 4 News's chief correspondent Alex Thompson stated that Syrian rebels he was with had purposely tried to lead him and his team into a death trap so that they would be killed by gunfire from government forces in an alleged bid to discredit the Assad regime. Thomson stated that they were trying to return to government lines when their rebel escort led them down what he described as a dead-end in the middle of a "free-fire zone".<ref>{{cite news |title= Channel 4 journalist Alex Thomson says Syria rebels led me into death trap |url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9321068/Channel-4-journalist-Alex-Thomson-says-Syria-rebels-led-me-into-death-trap.html |publisher= telegraph.co.uk |date= 9 June 2012 |accessdate= 14 June 2012 }}</ref>


===International===
===International===
Line 518: Line 520:
[[File:"The Friday of One Demand" - Flickr - Al Jazeera English (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Protest against [[Bashar al-Assad]] in [[Cairo]]]]
[[File:"The Friday of One Demand" - Flickr - Al Jazeera English (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Protest against [[Bashar al-Assad]] in [[Cairo]]]]
[[File:Rally in support of Syrian President (2011).jpg|thumb|left|Rally in 2011 in support of Syrian President al-Assad in Sydney]]
[[File:Rally in support of Syrian President (2011).jpg|thumb|left|Rally in 2011 in support of Syrian President al-Assad in Sydney]]
The [[Arab League]],{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14439303 |title=Saudi Arabia withdraws ambassador from Syria |work=BBC |date=7 August 2011 |accessdate=7 August 2011 }} [[European Union]],{{cite news |url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=45066 |title=EU condemns 'unacceptable' repression in Syria |work=Middle East Online |date=22 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011 }} [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] of the United Nations,{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011318231622114396.html |title=UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests |work=Al Jazeera |date=18 March 2011 }} and many Western governments condemned the violence and the Syrian government's response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech.{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jj7uSbIAaro1v0fwW4jziIxQ1j9w?docId=CNG.a807bd69f3debaa7a6b4ca2383f9500b.1191 |title=Canada condemns violence in Yemen, Bahrain, Syria |agency=Agence France-Presse |work=Google News |date=21 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011 }}{{cite news |title = Obama Condemns 'Abhorrent Violence' of Syrian Gov't |agency=Reuters |work=Ynetnews |date=9 April 2011 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4054242,00.html |accessdate=9 April 2011 }} China and Russia supported the government against international sanctions.{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/05/russia-china-veto-syria-s_n_995600.html |title=Russia, China Veto Syria Sanctions |work=Huffington Post |date= 5 October 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 |first=Eline |last=Gordts }} Russia, whose Mediterranean fleet's primary naval base is in Syria, denounced the use of violence by the opposition and the presence of "terrorists" within its ranks.{{cite news |url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20111003/167347814.html |title=Russia urges Syrian opposition to end violence |work=RIA Novosti |date=3 October 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}
The [[Arab League]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14439303 |title=Saudi Arabia withdraws ambassador from Syria |work=BBC |date=7 August 2011 |accessdate=7 August 2011 }}</ref> [[European Union]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=45066 |title=EU condemns 'unacceptable' repression in Syria |work=Middle East Online |date=22 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011 }}</ref> [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] of the United Nations,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011318231622114396.html |title=UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests |work=Al Jazeera |date=18 March 2011 }}</ref> and many Western governments condemned the violence and the Syrian government's response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jj7uSbIAaro1v0fwW4jziIxQ1j9w?docId=CNG.a807bd69f3debaa7a6b4ca2383f9500b.1191 |title=Canada condemns violence in Yemen, Bahrain, Syria |agency=Agence France-Presse |work=Google News |date=21 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title = Obama Condemns 'Abhorrent Violence' of Syrian Gov't |agency=Reuters |work=Ynetnews |date=9 April 2011 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4054242,00.html |accessdate=9 April 2011 }}</ref> China and Russia supported the government against international sanctions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/05/russia-china-veto-syria-s_n_995600.html |title=Russia, China Veto Syria Sanctions |work=Huffington Post |date= 5 October 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 |first=Eline |last=Gordts }}</ref> Russia, whose Mediterranean fleet's primary naval base is in Syria, denounced the use of violence by the opposition and the presence of "terrorists" within its ranks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20111003/167347814.html |title=Russia urges Syrian opposition to end violence |work=RIA Novosti |date=3 October 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref>


==Media coverage==
==Media coverage==
{{See also|Syrian media coverage of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}
{{See also|Syrian media coverage of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising}}


According to the OHCHR, "Reports from a wide variety of sources assert that the demonstrations were mostly peaceful. Civilians of all ages participated in protests and often carried olive branches or bared their chests to show that they were unarmed. Government-controlled media channels reported these events inaccurately, in most cases attributing disturbances to 'terrorist' elements."{{rp|20}}
According to the OHCHR, "Reports from a wide variety of sources assert that the demonstrations were mostly peaceful. Civilians of all ages participated in protests and often carried olive branches or bared their chests to show that they were unarmed. Government-controlled media channels reported these events inaccurately, in most cases attributing disturbances to 'terrorist' elements."<ref name = "OHCHR Sep11"/>{{rp|20}}


Under criticism from Internet activists for failing to acknowledge the Syrian uprising, some of the largest [[opposition parties]] in Syria that might have great political influence following any change of power were profiled.{{cite news |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20111102190752.htm |title=Meet Syria's Opposition |work=Assyrian International News Agency |date=11 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |first=Randa |last=Slim }}
Under criticism from Internet activists for failing to acknowledge the Syrian uprising, some of the largest [[opposition parties]] in Syria that might have great political influence following any change of power were profiled.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20111102190752.htm |title=Meet Syria's Opposition |work=Assyrian International News Agency |date=11 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |first=Randa |last=Slim }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 20:51, 15 July 2012

Syrian Civil War
Part of the Arab Spring

Anti-government demonstration in Homs, 2011
Date15 March 2011 (2011-03-15)ongoing
(13 years and 2 weeks)
Location
Result Ongoing
Belligerents

Syria Syrian Arab Republic

 Kurdistan Democratic Union Party

Military support for the government from:
 Iran[1]

File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg Hezbollah[2][3][4]

Syrian opposition

Foreign Mujahideen[8][9][10]

Military support for the opposition from:
 Turkey[13]
 Saudi Arabia[13][14][15]

 Qatar[13][14][15]
Commanders and leaders

Syria Bashar al-Assad
President of Syria
Syria Riyad Farid Hijab
Prime Minister of Syria
Syria Dawoud Rajiha
Defense Minister
Syria Fahed al-Jasem el-Freij
Chief Of Staff (Syrian Army)
Syria Maher al-Assad
Republican Guard Commander
Syria Mohammad Ibrahim al-Shaar
Interior Minister
Syria Assef Shawkat
Deputy Defense Minister and Intelligence head
Syria Walid Muallem
Foreign Affairs and Expatriates Minister

Iran Qasem Soleimani
Quds Force Commander- IRG

Abdulbaset Sieda
Syrian National Council Chairman
Burhan Ghalioun
Syrian National Council ex-Chairman (29 August 2011 – 10 June 2012)
Riad al-Asaad
Free Syrian Army Commander
Mustafa Ahmed al-Sheikh
Higher Military Council Head
Ali Sadreddine Bayanouni
Muslim Brotherhood Leader
Haitham al-Maleh
Human Rights in Syria spokesman

Samir Nashar
Secretariat of the Damascus Declaration Member
Strength

Syria Syrian Armed Forces: 304,000 (at peak)[16] Syria General Security Directorate: 8,000
Syria Shabiha militiamen: 20,000 fighters

 Kurdistan Democratic Union Party: 4,500 fighters[17]

40,000[18]–60,000[19] fighters

Casualties and losses

Syria Syrian security forces 4,481[21]–5,000[22][23] soldiers and policemen killed, 68 militiamen killed[24]
File:Hezbollah Flag.jpg Hezbollah
147 killed [3][4]
Iran Iranian Basij

85 killed [3][4][25]

Syrian rebels and protesters

4,421 fighters* (see here) and 979–1,423 protesters killed,[26]
26,066 protesters and fighters captured[27]
Foreign Mujahideen
36 killed[9]
17,704[21]–18,218[27] Syrians killed overall (opposition claims)**
158 foreign civilians (see here) and 2 Turkish F4 Phantom pilots killed
240,000 displaced (180,000 refugees)
  • Number possibly higher due to the opposition counting rebels that were not defectors as civilians.[28]
    **Numbers do not include foreign combatants from both sides or Shabiha militiamen who have been killed.

The Syrian Civil War (also referred to as the Syrian uprising[29][30][31][32]) is an ongoing internal armed conflict in Syria. It began on 15 March 2011 with public demonstrations as part of the wider Arab Spring and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters have demanded the end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule, as well as the downfall of President Bashar al-Assad.

In the spring of 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising. Several cities have been besieged,[33][34] and soldiers were reportedly ordered to open fire on civilians.[35] According to witnesses, soldiers who refused to open fire on civilians were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.[36] Civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, and unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army, fighting in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacks an organized leadership. The Syrian government characterizes the insurgency as "armed terrorist groups".[37]

According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 17,700–24,960 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 9,225–9,745 armed combatants from both sides[21][38][39][40] and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.[26] To escape the violence, thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan,[41] Lebanon and Turkey.[42][43] In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned, and there have been reports of widespread torture in the government's prisons.[44][45] International organizations have also accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields,[46][47] and of intentionally targeting civilians.[48]

The Arab League, United States, European Union, GCC states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters. China and Russia have criticized the government,[49] but advise against sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention.[50] However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.[51] The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,[52] but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis. A further attempt to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan as a special envoy. U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon had repeatedly stated that the Syrian conflict could emerge into an "all-out civil war".[53]

On 15 July 2012 the International Committee of the Red Cross assessed the Syrian conflict as a "non-international armed conflict" -- the ICRC's legal term for civil war -- and thus as a result the provisions of international humanitarian law under the Geneva Conventions now apply to the conflict.[54][55][56][57] There were reports of "heavy fighing" in Damascus.[58]

Background

History

Former President Hafez al-Assad (right), and his brother Rifaat al-Assad (left), who personally supervised the 1982 Hama massacre.

Syria became an independent republic in 1946. In March 1949, democratic rule was overturned by an American supported coup.[59] Two more military coups took place that same year. A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 catalyzed a mutiny that saw the army transfer power to civilians. Free elections resulted in Shukri al-Quwatli, who had been the President at the time of the March 1949 coup, to be elected to that post in 1955. A brief union with Egypt in 1958 resulted in Syria's parliamentary system being replaced by a highly centralized presidential system. The union ended in 1961 with Syria's secession. A 1963 military coup d'état brought the Ba'ath Party to power, and was followed by another coup in 1966.[60] In 1970, then Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power and declared himself President, a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the Ba'ath Party has remained the sole authority in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by referendum and do not hold multi-party elections for the legislature.[61] In 1982, at the height of a six-year Islamist insurgency throughout the country, Assad conducted a scorched earth policy against the town of Hama to quell an uprising by the Sunni Islamist community, including the Muslim Brotherhood and others.[62] This became known as the Hama massacre, which left tens of thousands dead.[63]

The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the 1999 Latakia protests,[64] when violent protests and armed clashes erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother Rifaat.[64] Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.[65] Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from pulmonary fibrosis. He was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.[61]

Bashar al-Assad, who speaks fluent English and has a British-born wife, initially inspired hopes for reform; a "Damascus Spring" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.[66] The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as Riad Seif, Haitham al-Maleh, Kamal al-Labwani, Riyad al-Turk and Aref Dalila were important in mobilizing the movement.[67] The most famous of the forums were the Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.[64] Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist Michel Kilo collaborated with other leading opposition figures to launch the Damascus Declaration, which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, totalitarian and cliquish" and called for democratic reform.[68]

Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas since 2004. That year, riots broke out against the government in the northeastern city of Qamishli. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised Kurdish flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and Arab groups, at least 30 people were killed,[69] with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people.[70] Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.

The al-Assad family comes from the minority Alawite sect, an offshoot of Shiite Islam that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the Syrian population.[71] It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,[72] a sect that makes up about three quarters of Syria's population.[73] Minority Kurds have also protested and complained.[74] Bashar al-Assad initially asserted that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt.[75] Bouthaina Shaaban, a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as Qatar-based Yusuf al-Qaradawi in a sermon in Doha on 25 March.[76] According to The New York Times, the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother Maher al-Assad commands the army's Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, is the deputy minister of defense.

Socio-economics

Socio-economic complaints have been reported, such as a deterioration in the country's standard of living, a reduction of state support for the poor resulting from the gradual transition towards a free market economy, the erosion of subsidies for basic goods and agriculture, free trade without suitable support to the local industry, and particularly high youth unemployment rates.[77][78]

Human rights

The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.[79] The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[80] The Syrian government has justified this by pointing to the fact that the country has been in a continuous state of war with Israel. After taking power in 1970, Hafez al-Assad quickly purged the government of any political adversaries and asserted his control over all aspects of Syrian society. He developed an elaborate cult of personality and violently repressed any opposition, most notoriously in the 1982 Hama Massacre. After his death in 2000 and the succession of his son Bashar al-Assad to the Presidency, it was hoped that the Syrian government would make concessions toward the development of a more liberal society; this period became known as the Damascus Spring. However, al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from Human Rights Watch stating that he had failed to improve the state of human rights since taking power ten years prior.[81] All other political parties have remained banned, thereby making Syria a one-party state without free elections.[80]

Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled in Syria.[82] The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and tortured in poor prison conditions.[82] While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as Amazon, Facebook, Wikipedia and YouTube were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for high speed Internet, and those sites were allowed.[83] However, a 2007 law requires Internet cafes to record all comments that users post on online chat forums.[84]

In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen indicated a "new era" was coming to the Middle East, and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.[85]

Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector.[82] Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962, and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners" until 2011, when 120,000 out of roughly 200,000 stateless Kurds were granted citizenship on 6 April.[86] Because the government is dominated by the Alawite sect, it has had to make some gestures toward the majority Sunni sects and other minority populations in order to retain power.

Timeline

Summary

File:Map of the Syrian Uprising- June (Final).gif
Situation in Syria as of June 2012[87] (Note: this map does not contain the situation in Syria's eastern parts, due to lack of verified information. However, it has been reported that parts of Deiz al-zor governorate are in rebel control as of June 24, 2012)[88]

When limited protests first began early in 2011, Assad instituted a policy of combining harsh repression with tardy political concessions.[89]: 8  For example, in early June 2011, several hundred political detainees were released following the issuance of an amnesty on 31 May 2011, but at the same time Syrian security forces escalated their response to the demonstrations by deploying military forces to areas where protest was most intense.[90]: 4  This violence led to a dramatic expansion in both the numbers of people protesting and to an extension of the issues they protested about.[90]: 3  Violence began to increase dramatically after March 2012, as Assad moved against opposition fighters who were becoming better armed and organised thanks to substantial external assistance.[91] By June 2012, deaths of Syrian armed forces had increased appreciably; nevertheless, the conflict retained a protracted outlook.[92][93]

Protests

The former flag of Syria has been used as an opposition flag.[94]

The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January 2011,[95] when Hasan Ali Akleh from Al-Hasakah poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the Syrian government".[96][97] Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in Ar-Raqqah to protest the killing of two soldiers of Kurdish descent.[98]

On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4 to 5 February on social media websites Facebook and Twitter; however, protests failed to materialize within the country itself.[99] Hundreds marched in Al-Hasakah, but Syrian security forces dispersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators.[100] Al Jazeera labeled Syria a "kingdom of silence", concluding that protests would not succeed due to the popularity of al-Assad and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like that seen in neighboring Iraq.[101] A protest in late February at the Libyan Embassy in Damascus to demonstrate against the government of Muammar Gaddafi, facing his own major protests in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from Syrian police moving to disperse the demonstration against a friendly regime.[102]

"Down with Bashar al-Assad". Government-critical graffiti was an early sign of the uprising.

On 6 March, Time magazine ran a story which analysed the state of the Syrian youth and why, despite some individuals being extremely critical of the government, it would be unlikely for this anger to develop into a full-fledged uprising.[103] Ribal al-Assad said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next domino in the burgeoning Arab Spring.[104] Indeed, on 15 March, the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria.[105] Increasingly, the city of Daraa became the focal point for the growing uprising. This city has been straining under the influx of internal refugees who were forced to leave their northeastern lands due to a drought which was exacerbated by the government's lack of provision.[106] Over 100,000 people reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed.[107] Protests also spread to other Syrian cities, including Homs, Hama, Baniyas, Jassem, Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead.[108] Late in the month, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protesters, when al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners.[109] An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted,[110] and Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari.[111] Assad denied the emergency law would be lifted at the end of March, however.[112]

In April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, leading to at least 10 deaths.[113] Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed.[114] Tens of thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction did not prevent widespread protests in many Syrian cities.[115] Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli and Homs.[116][117] There were also protests in Douma and Harasta, suburbs of Damascus. Firing throughout the country resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloodiest day so far.[116] Tanks and soldiers entered Daraa and Douma and the border with Jordan was also closed.[118] According to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa.[119] Al Jazeera reported that some soldiers appeared to have been shot by their own comrades-in-arms after refusing orders to fire on protesters.[120] On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions against the Syrian government.[121]

Protests and military sieges

Riot police in Damascus

As protests continued, the Syrian government used tanks and snipers to force people off the streets. Water and electricity were shut off in the city of Daraa, and security forces began confiscating flour and food.[122] A similar situation was reported in Homs.[123] In May, the Syrian army entered the cities of Baniyas, Hama, Homs, Talkalakh, Latakia, the Al-Midan and Douma districts of Damascus, and several other towns.[124][125]

Baniyas was besieged in early May, and divided into zones of de facto control, with protesters largely controlling the south and security forces enforcing the laws of the government in the north. Major demonstrations saw nearly 20 deaths on 6 May, and the government said 11 soldiers were shot by "armed groups" on the same day.[126] The violent suppression of protests in Homs, Daraa, and other rebellious cities continued throughout the month.[127][128] A 17 May report of claims by refugees coming from Telkalakh on the Lebanese border indicated that sectarian attacks may have been occurring. Sunni refugees said that uniformed Alawite Shabiha militiamen were killing Sunnis in the town of Telkalakh. The reporter also stated that according to arms dealers, "sales of black market weapons in Lebanon have skyrocketed in recent weeks driven almost entirely by demand in Syria."[129]

Early June, the Syrian government said more than 20 Syrian demonstrators were shot dead at the Golan Heights by Israeli forces, when trying to cross the cease-fire line during Naksa Day demonstrations. This was perceived by Israelis as a way for the Syrian government to divert attention from the Syrian unrest by allowing demonstrators to reach all the way to the Golan Heights.[130] The army also besieged the northern cities of Jisr ash-Shugur[131] and Maarat al-Numaan near the Turkish border.[132] The Syrian Army claimed the towns were the site of mass graves of Syrian security personnel killed during the uprising and justified the attacks as operations to rid the region of "armed gangs",[133] though local residents claimed the dead Syrian troops and officers were executed for refusing to fire on protesters.[134] The siege of Daraa continued in the meantime, with a French journalist reporting famine-like conditions in the town.[135] On 20 June, in a speech lasting nearly an hour, in response to the demands of protesters and foreign pressure, Assad promised a "national dialogue" involving movement toward reform, new parliamentary elections, and greater freedoms. He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on a small number of "saboteurs". The speech received mixed reactions domestically and abroad and was largely dismissed by protesters.[136] On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in Aleppo (Syria's second largest city) which were labeled the "Aleppo volcano".[137]

In mid-July, pro-government protesters attacked the US and French embassies in Damascus, responding to those countries' support for the opposition.[138] Attacks on protests continued throughout July, with government forces repeatedly firing at protesters and employing tanks against demonstrations, as well as conducting arrests. On 31 July, a siege of Hama escalated during a so-called "Ramadan Massacre", in which at least 136 people were killed and hundreds wounded when Syrian forces attacked demonstrators across the country, employing tanks, artillery and snipers. Most of the deaths occurred in Hama.[139]

Syrian forces continued to bombard Hama in early August, along with attacks in other cities and towns.[140] On the first full weekend of Ramadan, the Arab League and several Gulf Cooperation Council member states led by Saudi Arabia broke their silence on the events in Syria to condemn the government's response.[141] Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests.

On 14 August, the Syrian Navy became involved in the military crackdown. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods. Up to 28 people were killed. Eight more civilians were killed elsewhere in the country.[142]

Throughout the next few days, the Siege of Latakia dragged on, with government forces and shabiha militia continuing to fire on civilians in the city, as well as throughout the country over the following days. On 30 August, during the first day of Eid ul-Fitr, thousands of people demonstrated in Homs, Daraa, and suburbs of Damascus. Nine people were killed when security forces fired on these demonstrations. Eid celebrations in the country were reportedly muted, with people trying to visit the graves of their loved ones being killed.[143] Protests continued into the following months, with security forces and militia continuing to fire at demonstrators and raid towns and neighborhoods across the country.

On 7 October, prominent Kurdish rights activist Mishaal al-Tammo was assassinated when masked gunmen burst into his flat, with the Syrian government blamed for his death. At least 20 other civilians were also killed during crackdowns on demonstrations across the country. The next day, more than 50,000 mourners marched in Al-Qamishli to mark Tammo's funeral, and at least 14 were killed when security forces fired on them.[144]

In August, The Jerusalem Post reported that protesters enraged at Hezbollah's support for Assad's government burned Hezbollah flags and images of its leader Hassan Nasrallah in several places in Syria.[145] Pro-government protestors have carried posters of Hassan Nasrallah.[146] Hezbollah states they support a process of reforms in Syria and that they also are against what they term US plots to destabilize and interfere in Syria.[147]

Six months into the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remain largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.[148] The two cities central squares have seen rallies in the tens of thousands in support of Assad and his government.[149] Analysts and even opposition activists themselves acknowledge that without mass participation in the protest movement from these two cities, the government will survive and avoid the fate of its counterparts in Egypt and Tunisia.[149]

Throughout August and September, Syrian forces continued to suppress protests, with hundreds of killings and arrests reportedly having taken place. The crackdown continued into the first three days of November. On 3 November, the government accepted an Arab League plan that aims to restore the peace in the country. According to members of the opposition, however, government forces continued their suppression of protests. Throughout the month, there were numerous reports of civilians taken from their homes turning up dead and mutilated, clashes between loyalist troops and defectors, and electric shocks and hot iron rods being used to torture detainees.

Protests and armed clashes

File:Syrian Uprising Map of Homs Neighborhoods.png
Neighborhoods in Homs under siege (8 February 2012).

On 14 November, more than 70 people were killed across Syria as the army clashed with defectors and shot at civilians. Some 34 soldiers and 12 defectors were killed, along with 27 civilians.[150]

On 9 November, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay warned that the country could slip into "a Libyan-style civil war".[151]

On 12 December, local elections under reformed electoral law were held amid the tensions.[152]

Activists said security forces killed up to 70 army defectors on 19 December as they were deserting their military posts near the Turkish border. At least 30 other people died in other violence across the country, the activists said. If accurate, it would be one of the heaviest daily tolls of the entire revolt up until December.[153]

On 23 December, two suicide bombs hit two security facilities in Damascus, killing 30 civilians and soldiers. The government stated the attack "carried the blueprint of al-Qaeda", whereas opposition members blamed the government,[154] and hinted that the government itself may have been behind the attacks to make its case to Arab League observers who arrived in the country only the day before. Government officials brought the advance team of Arab League observers to the scene to see the wreckage. Omar Idilbi, a member of the Syrian National Council thought the explosions "very mysterious because they happened in heavily guarded areas that are difficult to be penetrated by a car."[155] Two days earlier, Lebanese authorities had warned that al-Qaeda members were entering Syria from North Lebanon.[156]

Opposition demonstration in one of Homs' districts

On 11 January, a mortar attack on a pro-government rally in Homs killed a French journalist, Gilles Jacquier of France 2, and seven others.[157]

On 27 January, Arab League observer mission reported on attacks carried out by opposition forces.

Recently, there have been incidents that could widen the gap and increase bitterness between the parties. These incidents can have grave consequences and lead to the loss of life and property. Such incidents include the bombing of buildings, trains carrying fuel, vehicles carrying diesel oil and explosions targeting the police, members of the media and fuel pipelines. Some of those attacks have been carried out by the Free Syrian Army and some by other armed opposition groups.[158]

On 1 February, Riad al-Asaad, commander of the Free Syrian army, claimed that "Fifty percent of Syrian territory is no longer under the control of the regime," and that half of the country was now effectively a no-go zone for the security forces. He said the morale of government troops was extremely low. "That’s why they are bombing indiscriminately, killing men, women and children," he said.[159]

Protests have drifted abroad to the doorsteps of Syrian embassies. After the opposition had claimed that more than 200 people perished in the massacre in Homs on 2 February 2012, both Syrian and non-Syrian protesters in Cairo, Kuwait City, and London damaged their respective Syrian embassy.[160]

In an attack on buildings used by Syrian military intelligence in Aleppo, at least 28 people died and 235 were injured on 10 February 2012. The Free Syrian Army, through colonel Arif Hamood, claimed responsibility for the attacks in an interview with France 24, saying mortars and RPGs had been used instead of car bombs as was initially reported.[161] However, shortly thereafter another FSA leader, Riad al-Asaad, denied FSA involvement and asserted a false-flag conspiracy in which the Assad government is presented as the perpetrator of the attack on its own buildings.[162] A correspondent for the Dutch public broadcaster NOS described the latter as an unlikely explanation for the attacks, pointing out that the FSA have earlier indicated that one of their targets is military intelligence, which they hold responsible for a major part of the violence against the opposition.[163]

Ceasefire attempt

Kofi Annan's peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.[164]: 11  Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.[165] On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.[166]

Renewed fighting

Following the Houla massacre and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the cease fire practically collapsed towards the end of May 2012, as FSA began nation-wide offensives against the government troops. On 1 June, the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad vowed to crush an anti-regime uprising, after the rebel Free Syrian Army (FSA) announced that it was resuming "defensive operations."[167]

On 2 June, 57 soldiers were killed in Syria, the largest number of casualties the military has suffered in a single day since the uprising broke out in mid-March 2011.[167]

Since 5 June, the Syrian army has been battling rebels around the city of Latakia, using tanks and helicopter gunships.[168]

On 6 June, 78 civilians were killed in the Al-Qubair massacre. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before pro-government militia, the Shabiha, moved in.[169] The UN observers rushed to the village in a hope to investigate the alleged massacre but were met with a road-block and small arms fire before the village and were forced to retreat.[170][171]

At the same time, the conflict has started moving into the two largest cities (Damascus and Aleppo) that the government claimed were being dominated by the silent majority, which wanted stability, not government change. In both places there has been a revival of the protest movement in its peaceful dimension. Shopkeepers across the capital staged a general strike and in several Aleppo commercial districts mounted a similar but smaller protest. This has been interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities has become weak.[172]

On 22 June, a Turkish F-4 fighter jet was shot down by Syrian government forces.[173] Both pilots were killed.[174] Syria admitted shooting the fighter down, stating that the Turkish fighter was flying over Syrian territorial waters 1 kilometer away from land when it was fired on by anti-aircraft artillery near the village of Om al-Tuyour.[175] Turkey's foreign minister stated the jet was shot down in international airspace after accidentally entering Syrian airspace, while it was on a training flight to test Turkey's radar capabilities.[176] Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan vowed retaliation, saying: "The rules of engagement of the Turkish Armed Forces have changed ... Turkey will support Syrian people in every way until they get rid of the bloody dictator and his gang."[177] Ankara acknowledged that the jet had flown over Syria for a short time, but said such temporary overflights were common, had not led to an attack before, and alleged that Syrian helicopters had violated Turkish airspace five times without being attacked and that a second, search-and-rescue jet had been fired at.[177][178] An anonymous Israeli air force source suggested Russian technicians played a key role in the interception and shooting down of the jet, though no evidence was presented.[179] Assad later expressed regret over the incident.[180]

Attempts by the international community to agree a transitional government of national unity failed at the beginning of July after Russia insisted the agreement should not preclude Assad from being part of it.[181] Syrian opposition groups rejected the UN-brokered peace plan, arguing that it was ambiguous, and vowing not to negotiate with President Bashar Assad or members of his regime.[182]

In early July, Manaf Tlass, a Brigadier General of the Republican Guard, defected from Syria, making him the highest-level military defector yet since the uprising began. Western diplomats said his flight is a sign of Assad's weakening inner circle.[183] Nawaf al-Fares, the Syrian ambassador to Iraq who has sympathized with the opposition movement since it began in March 2011, defected to the opposition in Mid July 2012.[184]

Parties in the conflict

Syrian National Council

Bassma Kodmani (L), Burhan Ghalioun (C) and Haitham al-Maleh (R) at SNC's first congress in Tunis, 19 December 2011.

The Syrian opposition met several times in conferences held mostly in Turkey and formed a National Council.

The Federation of Tenseekiet Syrian Revolution helped in the formation of a Transitional National Assembly on 23 August in Istanbul "to serve as the political stage of the Revolution of the Syrian people". The creation of the Syrian National Council was celebrated by the Syrian protestors since the Friday protest following its establishment was dubbed "The Syrian National Council Represents Me".[185][186] The Syrian National Council gained the recognition of a few countries, including "sole legitimate interlocutor" by the United States.[187] The SNC is said to have developed a debilitating democratic deficit, and some opposition actors on the ground in Syria subsequently refuse to work with it.[188]: 5–9 

Local coordination committees

The networks of anti-government protest organizers formed decentralized "Local Coordination Committees" which drew together the young, unorganized protesters. The Committees are used to document protests and spread anti-government messages throughout Syria. Though they have only a few hundred members, the Local Coordination Committees rose to prominence as the core of the protest movement on the ground, separate from the organized political opposition. The Committees are also noted for trying to reach out to minority groups and diversify the demonstrations.[189]

Free Syrian Army and other armed opposition groups

In late July 2011, a web video featuring a group of uniformed men claiming to be defected Syrian Army officers proclaimed the formation of a Free Syrian Army (FSA). In the video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend protesters from violence by the state.[5] Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.[190] The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 as of December 2011.[191] Nir Rosen, who spent time with the FSA in Syria, claims the majority of its members are civilians rather than defectors, who had taken up arms long before the formation of the FSA was announced. He also stated they have no central leadership.[192] The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fight under the FSA's banner.[193]

As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted guerilla-style tactics against security forces inside cities. Its primary target has been the shabiha militias. Most FSA attacks however are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to bring security reinforcements. Sometimes the vehicle occupants are taken as hostages, in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with roadside bombs or through hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted power lines and water mains in "retaliation against Hezbollah’s provocations."[194] To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods rife with opposition, guarding streets while protests take place, and attacking shabiha members. However, the FSA engaged in street battles with security forces in Deir ez-Zor, Al-Rastan, and Al-Bukamal. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor, and Daraa, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a no-fly zone.[195] The Free Syrian Army numbers about 15,000 men according to a statement its leader Riad al-Asaad made on Al Jazeera, and he added that these were almost exclusively reserve troops that defected from the Syrian army, and thus were no match against the government's highly trained active-duty troops.

More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces have been killed, which the Syrian government states is due to "armed gangs" being among the protesters, yet the opposition blames the deaths on the government.[196] Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the black market since the beginning of the protests.[197] Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist.[198] On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post.[199] The main centers of unrest – Daraa near Jordan, where the uprising began, Talkalakh, Homs, Talbiseh, and Al-Rastan near Lebanon, and Jisr ash-Shugur near Turkey – have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.[200]

In September 2011, the Syrian government claimed to have killed a total of 700 insurgents.[201]

Daniel Byman believes the political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other,[202] and thus uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism is crucial. The latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern.[203] Others would say that part of Byman's analysis represents a failure to understand that the leadership within Syria is decentralised out of necessity, that this is a good thing, and that decentralisation is not the same thing as fragmentation, and certainly does not represent an absence of strong leadership.[204] Whichever view one accepts, there are undeniably rivalries between different strands and disagreement between those advocating peaceful protests and those backing armed struggle.[205][206]

Kurdish and Palestinian stance

Syrian Kurds represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic and social rights. Additionally, since 1962, they and their children had been denied Syrian nationality, a situation that led to other problems relating to personal status and an inability to seek employment in the public sector.[89]: 7  When protests began, Assad's government, in an effort to try and neutralise potential Kurdish opposition, finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds.[207] This concession on citizenship, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish underrepresentation in the Syrian National Council, has meant that Kurds have participated in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab counterparts.[207][208] Consequently, violence and repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe.[207][209] According to Ariel Zirulnick of the Christian Science Monitor, the Assad government "has successfully convinced many of Syria's Kurds and Christians that without the iron grip of a leader sympathetic to the threats posed to minorities, they might meet the same fate" as minorities in Lebanon and Iraq.[210] In terms of a post-Assad Syria, Kurds reportedly desire a degree of autonomy within a decentralised state.[211]

In 2012, several cities with large Kurdish populations, such as Qamishli and Al-Hasakah, began witnessing protests of several thousand people against the Syrian government, which responded with tanks and fired upon the protesters.[212]

Senior Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) leader Cemil Bayik stated that if Turkey were to intervene against Assad, the PKK would fight on the Syrian side. The PKK's Syrian branch is alleged to be involved in the targeting of Kurds participating in the uprising.[213]

In May 2012, a delegation of the Kurdish National Council of Syria (KNCS), a coalition of ten Syrian-Kurdish parties established in October 2011, was invited to Washington for talks. Amongst others the delegation met Robert Ford, the former U.S. ambassador to Syria.[214]

The reaction of Palestinians in Syria has been mixed: many just want to stay out of the situation, some (particularly younger people) have actively supported the protests, but the PFLP is widely accused of actively supporting the repression (Assad has sheltered the group for years). Due to this, six Palestinian officers were assassinated between January and June 2012.[215] Another 17 Palestinian soldiers were abducted by the rebels in late June 2012,[216] and their mutilated bodies were discovered almost two weeks later.[217][218]

Shabiha

Shabiha (Arabic: الشبيحة; from the word شبح "ghost") have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad’s regime";[219] "gunmen loyal to Assad";[220] "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the regime."[220] Some "shabiha" operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunni, however.[221] Bassel al-Assad is reported to have created the secretive militia for the government in times of when it was in crisis.[222]

According to a Syrian citizen, shabiha is a term that was used to refer to gangs involved in smuggling during the Syrian occupation of Lebanon: "They used to travel in ghost cars without plates; that's how they got the name Shabbiha. They would smuggle cars from Lebanon to Syria. The police turned a blind eye, and in return Shabbiha would act as a shadow militia in case of need".[223] Witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region say that the shabiha have been intimately involved in the killing, looting and destruction.[223][224]

Sectarianism

At the uprising's outset, some protesters reportedly chanted "Christians to Beirut; Alawites to the coffin".[225][226] While many in the opposition view the conflict as a sectarian one, some have accused the government of fomenting sectarianism;[227] In a TIME report, an anti-Assad activist claimed that the Syrian government had paid government workers to write anti-Alawite graffiti and chant sectarian slogans at opposition rallies.[228] Alawites who have taken refugee in Lebanon have also told journalists that they were offered money by the Syrian government to spread sectarianism through chants and graffiti.[228]

Foreign involvement

The Syrian conflict has been interpreted as part of a proxy war between Sunni states such as Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar, who support the Sunni-led opposition, and Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah in Lebanon, who support the Alawite-led government in Syria.[229][230] Israeli reactions have been mixed, with some believing regime change in Syria would weaken their enemy Iran,[231] and others believing a post-Assad Syria might be more dangerous for the Jewish State.[232] Former Mossad chief Efraim Halevy has suggested that Israel should exploit the Shia-Sunni conflict.[233] Eventually, well into the Syrian uprising, Isreal decided to support the Syrian rebels and called for a regime change in Syria. The president, Shimon Peres, said that the international community is not doing enough to stop the violence, and he urged the West to intervene. The Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu said that an "axis of evil" is behind the atrocities in Syria. Netanyahu told the Cabinet that Iran and the militant group Hezbollah in Lebanon are assisting the Syrian government in the massacre of civilians.[234]

In February 2012 German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle warned that a proxy war in Syria could "cause a confrontation that drags in even Moscow and Beijing".[235] Before his departure to the 2012 G8 Summit the Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev warned, that "actions, which undermine state sovereignty" may well end in "a full-blown regional war" and even the "use of nuclear weapons".[236] Syrian state institutions are regime-centred,[237] thus another Brookings scholar, citing post-invasion Iraq, cautioned against the goal of an immediate purge of all Baathists.[238]

Reuters suggested that the prospect of British special forces entering Syria on the ground is growing, following unconfirmed reports from an Israeli website that SAS Commandos were conducting covert operations within Syrian territory, operating from Turkey on 26 June 2012.[239] In July 2012, Switzerland ceased arms exports to the UAE after it emerged Swiss weapons were finding their way to opposition fighters.[240] The Swiss decision came shortly after the UN human rights chief, Navi Pillay, called for an urgent stop to arms transfers to government and opposition forces so as to avoid "further militarisation" of the conflict.[241] The director of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy had previously argued that, while "uncontrolled militarization will turn the Syrian uprising into a wider conflict that could draw in jihadis and other extremists from across the Muslim World", militarisation was inevitable, and so the US should help facilitate and guide it.[242] Marc Lynch argued the opposite in February 2012, as the provision of weapons from Saudi Arabia and Qatar was being mooted: "It is unlikely that arms from the outside would come close to evening the balance of power, and would only invite escalations from Syrian regime forces".[243] Lynch was correct: according to the Syrian National Council, the increasingly fierce air and artillery assaults by the government after March 2012 were intended to counter the improved weaponry, coordination and tactics among the opposition forces that arrived from Arab states via Turkey and US facilitation;[244] in June, Amnesty International said the fighting during spring had escalated to "the level and intensity of a non-international armed conflict",[164]: 10  while the UN's head of peacekeeping, Herve Ladsous said the country was now in a state of "civil war";[245] and in July, the head of the UN monitoring mission to Syria, General Robert Mood, warned that violence was reaching an "unprecedented level",[246] as EU foreign policy chief, Catherine Ashton, noted the level of violence and number of casualties had risen to "unimaginable levels" over previous weeks.[247] At a conference in Paris shortly afterward, Western and Sunni Arab countries nonetheless announced they were going to "massively increase" aid to the Syrian opposition.[248] Opposition violence has reportedly alarmed some of the peaceful protesters and activists who first drove the uprising.[249]

Support for the opposition

Turkey provided refuge for Syrian dissidents. Syrian opposition activists convened in Istanbul in May to discuss regime change,[250] and Turkey hosts the head of the Free Syrian Army, Colonel Riad al-Asaad.[251][252] Turkey has become increasingly hostile to the Assad government's policies, has encouraged reconciliation among dissident factions. Beginning in May 2012, some Syrian opposition fighters began being armed and trained by the Turkish Intelligence.[253]

Some countries have cut ties with the Assad government including: the Gulf States, Libya, Tunisia,[254] Britain, Spain, Turkey, the United States and Belgium.[255] Canada has closed its visa office but maintains an embassy in Damascus.[256]

On 1 November, NATO said it had no intention of taking military action in Syria, after it closed its seven-month campaign in Libya.[257]

Sunni Islamist group Hizb ut-Tahrir has voiced its support for the Syrian opposition,[258] as has Hamas prime minister of Gaza, Ismail Haniya,[259] though Hamas leader Salah al-Bardaweel added that this does not mean severance of ties with the Assad government.[260] Bardaweel's claims are at odds with repeated leaks by his group showing that they were prepared to evacuate Syria and had already reduced their presence there.[261] The Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood provided active assistance.[244]

Al-Qaeda and affiliates are anti-Assad. American officials believe that Al-Qaeda in Iraq has conducted bomb attacks against government forces,[262] and al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri condemned Assad.[263] On 23 April, one of the leaders of Fatah al-Islam, Abdel Ghani Jawhar, was killed during the Battle of Al-Qusayr, after he blew himself up while making a bomb.[12] A member of the Abdullah Azzam Brigades in Lebanon admitted that his group had sent fighters to Syria, while a group thought linked to al-Qaeda and calling itself the al-Nusra Front claimed for a suicide bomb attack on 6 January 2012 in the central Damascus neighbourhood of al-Midan killed 26 people, most of whom were civilians,[264] as well as for truck bombs that killed 55 people and injured 370. Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.[265] In May 2012, Syria's U.N. envoy Bashar Ja'afari declared that dozens of foreign fighters from Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Britain, France elsewhere had been captured or killed, and urged Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey to stop "their sponsorship of the armed rebellion".[266][267] Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.[265] In June, it was reported that hundreds of foreign fighters, many linked to al-Qaeda, had gone to Syria to fight against Assad.[268] In July, Iraq's foreign minister again warned that members of al-Qaeda in Iraq were seeking refuge in Syria and moving there to fight.[246] When asked if the United States would arm the opposition, Hillary Clinton expressed fears that such weapons could fall into the hands of al-Qaeda or Hamas.[269]

A crucial line of support began in spring 2012 as Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced they would begin arming and bankrolling the opposition.[270][271][272] Paul Salem, director of the Carnegie Middle East Centre in Beirut, and Emile Hokayem of the International Institute of Strategic Studies argued such support would be unlikely to immediately make a decisive impact.[272][273] A ship carrying weapons from Libya believed destined for Syria's rebels has also been intercepted.[274] According to SNC e-mails leaked to Al Akhbar, Saudi support came with undesirable conditions attached, and played a negative, divisive role in Homs.[275]

In mid-April 2011, WikiLeaks revealed that the United States had secretly funnelled as much as $6 million to a London-based opposition group Movement for Justice and Development since 2006 to operate the Barada TV satellite channel and finance other activities inside Syria.[276] A report in the Washington Post in May 2012 described how the provision of military aid to opposition forces from Gulf states was being partly coordinated by the US.[277] A month later, the New York Times reported that the American involvement was being overseen by CIA officers in Turkey, and that the weapons provided included "automatic rifles, rocket-propelled grenades, ammunition and some antitank weapons". Part of the CIA's role was "helping to vet rebel groups" to ensure fighters allied with Al Qaeda or other terrorist groups were not benefiting from the flood of weaponry being provided and paid for by Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.[244] The American vetting is partly an attempt to learn the lessons of assisting jihadi opposition groups in Afghanistan in the 1980s, which left a negative legacy of empowering radical Islamists that has lasted to the present day.[278] Elizabeth O'Bagy urged additional caution: "Facilitating weapon transfers to certain groups could empower militias at the expense of the grassroots political opposition. One key condition for future arms transfers should be that groups receiving weapons agree to submit to civilian command structures."[204] US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta emphasised that, in contrast to others, his country was only providing facilitation and non-lethal support to the opposition.[279] A few days later, The Guardian reported plans by Saudi Arabia to pay the salaries of the Free Syrian Army via a command centre in Turkey, the aim being to encourage mass defections from the Syrian military.[280]

Defections

According to Daniel Byman: "Because the Syrian elite fears losing its privileged position and suffering payback for its decades of brutality, it is unlikely to support Assad's removal, particularly if they see the opposition as weak, divided, and thus unable to win in the long-term."[281] Thus when, on 8 March 2012, Abdo Hussameddin, Syria's deputy oil minister, became the highest political figure to have defected to the opposition since the start of the uprising, it was important not to read too much into it.[282] And though there has been a steady stream of defections from the armed forces, in June 2012 Damascus still retained control of many key divisions and the loyalty of its most elite units and inner sanctum.[178] Early in July, the most significant defection to date took place in the form of General Manaf Tlas, who is from one of the country's most famous families, though the value of his defection for the opposition was again primarily symbolic.[283]

Support for the Syrian government

Russia

Russia has provided arms, including refurbished helicopter gunships, and diplomatic support to the Syrian government. In January 2012, Human Rights Watch criticised Russia for "repeating the mistakes of Western governments" in its "misguided" support of Assad.[284] Amnesty International, noting the Syrian government's headlong deployment of military helicopters, criticised Russia of "a wanton disregard for humanity."[285] Human Rights Watch warned Russia's state-owned arms-trading company Rosoboronexport in a letter that, under international law, "providing weapons to Syria while crimes against humanity are being committed may translate into assisting in the commission of those crimes", and called on governments and companies around the world to stop signing new contracts and consider suspending current dealings with the Russian company.[286] Not long after, however, the US bought Mi-17 helicopters from Rosoboronexport worth hundreds of millions of dollars.[287] One of Russia's interests is access to the port of Tartus, home to its only remaining military base outside the former USSR and thus a key source of its influence in the eastern Mediterranean.[288] The Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies, a leading Russian think tank, played down Tartus and other allegedly important national interests, though, arguing instead that Russian support was "irrational".[289] In July 2012, however, Vyacheslav Dzirkaln, deputy director of Russia's Federal Service for Military Technical Co-operation, announced a halt to any new weapons transfers.[290]

Iran

Iran's supreme leader, Ali Khamenei, was vocally in favor of the Syrian government.[291] The Guardian reported that the Iranian government is assisting the Syrian government with riot control equipment and intelligence monitoring techniques.[292] The Economist said that Iran had, by February 2012, sent the Syrian government $9 billion to help it withstand Western sanctions.[293] It has also shipped fuel to the country and sent two warships to a Syrian port in a display of power and support.[294]

U.S. President Barack Obama and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice accused Iran of secretly aiding Assad in his efforts to quell the protests,[295] and there have been reports of Syrian protesters hearing security-force members speaking Persian.[296] The city of Zabadani is vitally important to Assad and to Iran because, at least as late as June 2011, the city served as the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps's logistical hub for supplying Hizballah.[193]

According to a U.N. panel in May 2012, Iran supplied the Syrian government with arms during the previous year despite a ban on weapons exports by the Islamic Republic. Turkish authorities captured crates and a truck in February 2012, including assault rifles, machine guns, explosives, detonators, 60mm and 120mm mortal shells as well as other items on its border. It was believed these were destined for the Syrian government. The confidential report leaked just hours after an article appeared in the Washington Post revealing how Syrian opposition fighters started to receive more, and better, weapons in an effort paid for by Gulf Arab states and co-ordinated partly by the US.[1] The report investigated three large illegal shipments of Iranian weapons over the past year and stated "Iran has continued to defy the international community through illegal arms shipments. Two of these cases involved (Syria), as were the majority of cases inspected by the Panel during its previous mandate, underscoring that Syria continues to be the central party to illicit Iranian arms transfers."[297]

In March 2012, anonymous U.S. intelligence officials claimed a spike in Iran­ian-supplied arms and other aid for the Syrian government. Iranian security officials also allegedly traveled to Damascus to help deliver this assistance. A second senior U.S. official said members of Iran's main intelligence service, the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, are assisting Syrian counterparts in charge of the crackdown.[298] More anonymous sources were cited by the UN in May 2012, as it claimed arms were moving both ways between Lebanon and Syria, and alleged weapons brought in from Lebanon were being used to arm the opposition.[299] The alleged spike in Iranian arms was likely a response to a looming influx of weapons and ammunition to the rebels from Gulf states that had been reported shortly before.[244]

According to US journalist Geneive Abdo, the Iranian government provided the Syrian government with technology to monitor e-mail, cell phones and social media. Iran developed these capabilities in the wake of the 2009 protests and spent millions of dollars establishing a "cyber army" to track down dissidents online. Iran's monitoring technology is believed to be among the most sophisticated in the world, perhaps only second to China.[291]

China

China has provided diplomatic support and possibly facilitated material support for Assad's government. This has included vetoing a UN Security Council resolution in tandem with Russia; Jerusalem Post correspondent Oren Kessler reported that Beijing's veto was enacted in the interests of preserving its ties with Russia.[300] China was named in a May 2012 Security Council report as a transit hub for illegal arms shipments from North Korea, with UN investigators investigating reports of such shipments to the Syrian government.[301]

Other countries

According to a top official of the Iranian revolutionary guard corps, Hezbollah operatives took part in fighting on the ground against the opposition in Damascus and in the Battle of Zabadani.[2]

In February 2012, it was reported that Hugo Chavez' government in Venezuela had been shipping tens of millions of dollars of diesel to Syria, which can be used to fuel army tanks.[302] The following month, as it prepared a third shipment, Venezuela confirmed that it would continue sending diesel to the country.[303] The Wall Street Journal obtained documents showing that a fourth big shipment of diesel was being readied in July 2012: "the deals are structured to bring other benefits, including shielding Syria's dwindling foreign-exchange reserves". The paper also noted that even "Syria's political opposition is split on the issue of cutting off all energy exports to the country. While they would like to see Mr. Assad's tanks run out of fuel, they also worry that a shortage of diesel could equally undermine the political and military opposition inside Syria."[304]

A Greece-based trading company, Naftomar, is reputedly the last firm arranging deliveries of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), but, unlike the fuel sent from Venezuela and Russia, LPG is a peaceful material that plays a vital role in countries like Syria that have limited infrastructure for piping gas. International sanctions do not apply to LPG for humanitarian reasons.[305]

WikiLeaks revelations beginning in July 2012 led to accusations that the subsidiary of an Italian arms company had provided communications equipment to the Syrian military in May 2011, and that, as late as February 2012, its engineers gave training on the use of the communications technology, including how it could be installed in helicopters.[306] The company said the equipment was for civilian use and said it had not sold any technology to Syria since the beginning of the uprising.[307]

Events in Lebanon

In May 2012, following a series of previous sectarian clashes between pro-Assad forces (mostly Alawites) and anti-Asad forces (mostly Lebanese Sunnis[53]) the violence in Lebanon reached new heights. Since mid-May until early June 2012, dozens were killed in Tripoli and Beirut and hundreds wounded. The Lebanese Army was deployed in the conflict areas in order to pacify the sides.

Syrian refugees

The refugee problem began unfolding across Syrian borders on April 2011, intensifying with the siege of Talkalakh and the unrest in the Syrian province of Idlib. As a result, thousands of Syrian citizens fled across the border to Lebanon and Syria by summer 2011. In early 2012, the numbers of Syrian refugees swelled to some 20,000 registered by UN in Lebanon, Turkey and Jordan. Syrian Kurds constitute most of the thousands who have sought shelter in northern Iraq.[207]

Following the increased fighting in Homs and the escalating assault of Syrian troops on towns and villages near Lebanese border, a large-scale refugee influx into Lebanon was reported on 4 March 2012. The exact number of moving Syrian refegees was not clear, but was described around 2,000.[308] The numbers of Syrian refugees were estimated at 130,000 in early March 2012.

On 10 April, it was reported that the number of Syrian refugees in four neighboring countries jumped by 40% within several weeks and stands at about 55,000 registered, almost half of whom are under 18 years old, according to U.N. figures.[309] There were also estimated to be at least 20,000 refugees who have not yet registered, as well as 200,000 or more Syrians who were displaced within their own country.[309]

By June, the number of Syrian refugees reached 180,000 throughout the Middle East, with the major concentration of 120,000 in Jordan.

Deaths

The number of fatalities in the conflict, according to the Syrian opposition website Syrian Martyrs, was 19,738, updated to 14 July 2012.[310] The number includes 1,495 military defectors, and does not include members of the government security forces or foreign fighters who have died on both sides.[39] 147 foreign civilians who have died in the conflict are also included in the toll, most of them, 115, being Palestinians.[311] The Syrian Martyrs number is significantly higher than the ones presented by other organisations, including the UN, one reason being they record deaths even when no name is given for the reportedly killed individual.[312]

UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed.[313][314] Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.[315][316] Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.[317] Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.[318]

File:Reported Deaths in Violence Across Syria April 2012.png
Reported deaths in violence across Syria.
File:Syria Civil War Victims Map.jpg
Victims of the uprising in Syria from 26 January 2011 to 12 April 2012
Governorate Number of deaths
Latakia 376
Rif Dimashq 1,869
Homs 6,745
Hama 2,290
Al-Hasakah 59
Daraa 1,809
Aleppo 698
Deir ez-Zor 824
Damascus 341
Tartus 67
Quneitra 19
Idlib 3,040
As-Suwayda 6
Ar-Raqqah 62
Total 18,205

Other estimates range from 15,000 to 18,220. Except for the L.C.C. estimate, which does not count security forces,[312] all of the totals include civilians, rebels, and security forces. Foreign civilians and fighters who have died on both sides are not included in the following figures:

Source Casualties Time period
Local Coordination Committees 14,841 killed[319] 15 March 2011 – 9 July 2012
United Nations 15,000 killed[320] 15 March 2011 – 12 July 2012
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights 17,704 killed[21] 15 March 2011 – 13 July 2012
The Violation Documentation Centre 18,218 killed[27][321] 15 March 2011 – 15 July 2012

Al Jazeera journalist Nir Rosen reported that many of the deaths reported daily by activists are in fact armed insurgents falsely presented as civilian deaths, but confirmed that real civilian deaths do occur on a regular basis.[192] A number of Middle East political analysts, including those from the Lebanese Al Akhbar newspaper, have also urged caution.[322][323][324]

This was later confirmed when in late May 2012, Rami Abdulrahman of the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, which is one of the opposition-affiliated groups counting the number of those killed in the uprising, stated that civilians who had taken up arms during the conflict were being counted under the category of "civilians".[28][325][326]

Combatant deaths

Pro-government combatants Casualties
Syrian military and police 4,481[21]-5,000[22][23] killed
Shabiha Unknown,[327] 68 conf.[24]
Lebanese Hezbollah 147 killed[3][4]
Iranian Basij 85 killed[3][4][25]
TOTAL 4,781-5,300 killed
Anti-government combatants Casualties
Rebels (former soldiers) 1,918 killed[328]
Rebels (former civilians) 2,503 killed[329]
Foreign rebel fighters 36 killed[9]
TOTAL 4,457 killed

Foreign civilians killed

Country Number of deaths
Palestine 115[311]
Lebanon 15[311][330][331][332]
Turkey 6[311][333][334]
Tunisia 5[311]
Egypt 3[311]
Iraq 3[311]
Jordan 3[311]
France 2[311]
United Kingdom 2[335]
Libya 1[311]
Saudi Arabia 1[311]
Sudan 1[311]
United States 1[311]
Total 158

Reaction

Domestic

Concessions

On 19 March 2011 by legislative decree 35, Assad shortened the length of mandatory army conscription from 21 months to 18 months.[336] On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.[337] On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa.[338] On 24 March, Assad's media adviser, Buthaina Shaaban, said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 Syrian pounds ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase press freedom, create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.[339]

On 26 March, Syrian authorities freed 260 political prisoners – 70 according to other sources – mostly Islamists, held in Saidnaya prison.[340] On 27 March, Bouthaina Shaaban confirmed that the emergency law would be lifted, but did not say when.[110] On 29 March, the Syrian cabinet submitted its official resignation to Assad.[111] On 31 March, Assad set up a committee of legal experts to study legislation that would pave the way to replacing decades-old emergency laws. The committee was to complete its study by 25 April. Assad also set up a judicial committee tasked with investigating the circumstances that led to the death of Syrian civilians and security forces in the cities of Daraa and Latakia.[341]

The government, dominated by the Alawite sect, also made some concessions to the majority Sunni and some minority populations in April. On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the niqab, and that the government had closed the country's only casino.[342] Of the 200,000 descendants of Syrian Kurds denied citizenship in 1962, 120,000 who were labeled "foreigners" were granted citizenship.[86]

On 7 April, Assad relieved the Governor of Homs province from his duties and issued a decree granting nationality to thousands of Kurds living in the eastern al Hasakah province[343] while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the 48 Kurds were released, more than a year after they were arrested in the eastern city of Raqqa.[344] This came a day after Assad met with Kurdish tribal leaders to discuss citizenship issues concerning the Kurds of Syria’s north-eastern provinces, as hundreds of thousands of Kurds were stripped of their citizenship rights as a result of the 1962 national census.[345]

On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law.[346] Two days later, Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law, together with decrees abolishing the Supreme State Security Court and regulating the right to peaceful demonstration.[347] On 30 April, Prime Minister Adel Safar announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.[348]

On 28 December, the state released 755 detainees "whose hands were not stained with Syrian blood".[349] As part of the Arab League peace plan, Syria released 3,500 prisoners on 3 January and a further 552 detainees on 5 January 2012.[350] On 15 January, president Al-Assad issued a general amnesty for those imprisoned for crimes committed in the context of the uprising.[351] According to state news agency SANA, 5,255 detainees have been released as of 22 January, with the release of further prisoners still continuing.[352]

On 15 February, Syrian state television announced that the government would hold a referendum on a new constitution on 26 February, in an attempt to end the conflict.[353] One of the amendments in the draft would replace the old article 8, which entrenches the power of the Ba'ath party, with a new article reading: The state's political system is based on political pluralism and power is practiced democratically through voting.[354] Syrians voted in favour of the new constitution on 26 February.[355] Parliamentary elections were held in May after the ratification of the new constitution.[356] After the elections, Mohammad Jihad al-Laham was elected as the new Syrian speaker of parliament.[357]

Assad has been forced to institute subsidies on basic necessities and move away from his market-orientated economic reforms that had only been benefiting the narrow, top sector of society.[358]

Censorship

On 5 February 2011, there were reports that the government was limiting internet services, though Facebook and YouTube were reported to have been restored three days later.[359] Suggestions were made that easing the ban could be a way to track activists.[360] In August 2011, Syrian security forces attacked the country's best-known political cartoonist, Ali Farzat, a noted critic of Syria's government and its crackdown. Relatives of the severely beaten humorist told Western media that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat, who recently celebrated his 60th birthday, was hospitalized with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head. Also, government loyalists have been blamed for cutting the vocal cords of poets and other censorship crimes of this nature.[361]

Human rights violations

The "vast majority" of human rights violations, including the international crimes, documented have been committed by the Syrian armed and security forces and their allied militia.[90]: 4 [91]: 1 [164]: 10 [362]: 20  Some violations are so serious, deliberate and systematic as to constitute crimes against humanity[89]: 5 [164]: 7 [362]: 18–20 [363] and war crimes.[164]: 7  Human Rights Watch accused the Assad government of creating an "archipelago of torture centers".[364]: 1  The key role in the repression, and particularly torture, is played by the mukhabarat: the Department of Military Intelligence, the Political Security Directorate, the General Intelligence Directorate, and the Air Force Intelligence Directorate.[89]: 9 [364]: 1, 35 

With regard to armed opposition groups, the UN accused them of: unlawful killing; torture and ill-treatment; kidnapping and hostage taking; and the use of children in dangerous non-combat roles.[91]: 4–5 

Rallies in support of the Assad government

Pro-government demonstration at Tishreen University

Since the start of the uprising, large crowds have rallied in the support of the Assad government, especially in the cities of Damascus,[365][366] Aleppo,[367] Tartus,[368] and Lattakia[369] Such rallies have been held since March 2011, and particularly following the suspension of Syria from the Arab League.

The Guardian reported on 22 March that one response of the Syrian authorities to the unrest was to organise pro-Assad rallies.[370] Pro-Assad rallies were held in the capital city of Damascus on 25 March.[371] In mid-June, rallies in support of Assad and his government increased; protests held in front of the French and Turkish embassies over their condemnations of the Syrian government's response to the unrest, and on 15 June, people at a pro-government demonstration in Damascus carried a 2.3 kilometre-long Syrian flag down Mezzeh boulevard.[372] State television reported that two million people attended to express Syrian national unity and Syria's rejection of foreign interference in its internal affairs.[373]

The day after Assad addressed the nation on 20 June, state television reported that over one million people gathered in Umayyad Square in Damascus, and there were demonstrations in Homs, Aleppo, Sweida, Lattakia, Deraa, Hasaka, Tartus, and elsewhere to express support for the reforms the president said he would carry out.[374]

Other

On 15 January 2012, SANA, the official Syrian news agency, announced a "general amnesty for crimes committed" during the uprising. The amnesty covered the period between 15 March 2011 and 15 January 2012.[375] Hours later, Syrian authorities released 80-year-old former judge Haitham al-Maleh, one of Assad's most outspoken critics, under an amnesty marking the anniversary of the 1963 coup which brought the Ba'ath Party to power. Twelve Syrian human rights organisations called on the government to scrap the state of emergency which had been in effect for almost 50 years.[376]

On 16 February, government critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of Rifaat al-Assad and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power".[377] In a 5 April interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war.[378]

A Syrian American man, Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid, was charged by U.S. federal prosecutors on 5 October with tracking Syrian Americans supporting the uprising in the United States and passing information to Syrian authorities, who then arrested family members of the dissidents living in Syria. The U.S. government alleges that Soueid met with Assad during a two-week trip to Syria in summer 2011.[379]

In October, Amnesty International published a report showing that at least 30 Syrian dissidents living in Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, faced intimidation by Syrian embassy officials, and that in some cases, their relatives in Syria were harassed, detained and tortured. Syrian embassy officials in London and Washington, D.C. were alleged to have taken photographs and videos of local Syrian dissidents and sent them to Syrian authorities, who then retaliated against their families.[380]

On 4 June, Channel 4 News's chief correspondent Alex Thompson stated that Syrian rebels he was with had purposely tried to lead him and his team into a death trap so that they would be killed by gunfire from government forces in an alleged bid to discredit the Assad regime. Thomson stated that they were trying to return to government lines when their rebel escort led them down what he described as a dead-end in the middle of a "free-fire zone".[381]

International

Protest against Bashar al-Assad in Cairo
Rally in 2011 in support of Syrian President al-Assad in Sydney

The Arab League,[382] European Union,[383] Secretary-General of the United Nations,[384] and many Western governments condemned the violence and the Syrian government's response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech.[385][386] China and Russia supported the government against international sanctions.[387] Russia, whose Mediterranean fleet's primary naval base is in Syria, denounced the use of violence by the opposition and the presence of "terrorists" within its ranks.[388]

Media coverage

According to the OHCHR, "Reports from a wide variety of sources assert that the demonstrations were mostly peaceful. Civilians of all ages participated in protests and often carried olive branches or bared their chests to show that they were unarmed. Government-controlled media channels reported these events inaccurately, in most cases attributing disturbances to 'terrorist' elements."[89]: 20 

Under criticism from Internet activists for failing to acknowledge the Syrian uprising, some of the largest opposition parties in Syria that might have great political influence following any change of power were profiled.[389]

See also

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Further reading

Bibliography

  • Cartalucci, Tony (2012). Subverting Syria: How CIA Contra Gangs and NGO's Manufacture, Mislabel and Market Mass Murder. Palm Desert: Progressive Press. ISBN 978-161577-556-9. {{cite book}}: Check |authorlink= value (help); External link in |authorlink= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)

External links

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