Egyptian Americans are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from Egypt, a country in northeast Africa. Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, the Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. With 90 percent of the land covered by desert, only 2.9 percent of the land area is arable. Approximately 95 percent of Egyptians live in this arable area, mainly along the Mediterranean Sea and the Nile River. The fact that Egypt controls both the Sinai land bridge that connects Africa to Asia and the Suez Canal, which provides access between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, adds to its international geopolitical clout. Egypt occupies an area of 386,488,261 square miles (1,001,450 square kilometers), approximately the same size as the state of New Mexico.

In July 2012 official census figures estimated the population of Egypt at 83,688,164. Approximately 90 percent of Egyptians are Muslim, and the majority of those are Sunni. Some 9 percent of Egyptians are Coptic Christians, and another 1 percent are Greek Orthodox, Catholic, or Jewish. According to a government census taken in 2006, 99.6 percent of Egyptians identified themselves as Egyptian, a group that includes Bedouins, Greeks, Nubians, Armenians, and Berbers. While Arabic is the official language, both English and French are generally understood by educated Egyptians due to the historical British and French colonial influence. Almost a third of the Egyptian workforce is engaged in the agricultural sector. At 12.2 percent in 2011, unemployment was considered unacceptably high by most Egyptians and was particularly problematic among young people. Egypt has a per capita income of $6,600, and a fifth of the population lives in poverty. The poor standard of living combined with widespread political discontent to oust President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak in 2011, with the result that the government drastically increased funding for social programs at the same time the economy slowed.

The first large wave of Egyptian immigrants to the United States followed the defeat of Egypt in 1967 in the Arab-Israeli War. By 1977, some 15,000 Egyptians had arrived in New York, New Jersey, California, Illinois, Florida, and Texas. Most of these immigrants were educated professionals who became assimilated into the American population. However, it was not until the 1990s that large numbers of Egyptians began immigrating to the United States. Between 1990 and 2000, the number of Egyptian Americans grew from 78,574 to 142,832. Most Egyptian immigrants come to the United States to pursue better educational opportunities, obtain better jobs, improve their standard of living, or to escape rampant bureaucratic corruption in Egypt.

In 2011 the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that there were 201,299 U.S. residents with Egyptian ancestry (American Community Survey three-year estimate for 2009–2011). This figure is comparable to the population of Tacoma, Washington. The largest single concentration of Egyptian Americans is found in the Little Egypt area of Queens, New York. According to the 2000 Census, the majority of Egyptian Americans live in California (30,959), New Jersey (25,170), New York (23,661), and Florida (6,759).

Early History Ancient Egypt was the cradle of Western Civilization. As early as 4000 BCE, people had come together to form an organized society. By 3100 BCE, the pharaoh Menes united the peoples of the Nile Delta into a single empire with those living southward along the river. During Egypt's height, its people thrived throughout the Nile valley, constructing massive pyramids, creating world-renowned art, establishing an advanced writing system, making advancements in science, building irrigation systems, and developing trade with Middle Eastern and Asian powers. By 1085 BCE, however, the Egyptian empire had begun to decay, again separating into Upper and Lower kingdoms—along the delta and the river. The Greeks, Romans, Aragians, North Africans, Turks, French, and British, came to Egypt seeking to conquer the Nile Valley and claim its riches.

For centuries, the majority of arable land in Egypt was possessed by a select few. This land was worked by the fellahin, who wielded two to three crops each season, usually keeping one-fourth to one-half of the harvest for themselves. Agricultural reform did not take place until the latter half of the nineteenth century when Egyptians began to grow cotton in an attempt Page 62  |  Top of Articleto establish a market economy rather than simply growing food products. However, when other world markets began producing cotton as well, the market suffered and the well-being of the Egyptian rural class greatly deteriorated.

In 1882 the British assumed proxy control of the country and built roads, railways, telegraph systems, and canals. Egypt's royal family and the already wealthy landowners greatly benefitted from British occupation. Although the rural class was heavily taxed, many prospered as well, thus creating a middle class. It was this newly established middle class who joined the nation's armed forces and instigated Egypt's 1952 Revolution, which freed the country from British occupation and initiated land reform, thus altering the social, economic, and political power of Egypt's ruling families.

Modern Era In 1956 Egypt elected Gamal Abdal Nasser as its first president. In 1962 under Nasser's leadership, the newly established national charter limited the amount of land held by farm owners to 100 acres. The remaining land was confiscated by the government, divided into plots, and awarded to the middle and lower classes. Improved housing, transportation, and health care resulted in a significant increase in Egypt's population. Despite the modernization efforts of such leaders as Nasser and Anwar Sadat (making great strides in industrializing the country and establishing an open economy), inflation, overpopulation, and the general unrest in the Middle East continued to hinder national progress.

Efforts to modernize Egypt and grow the country's arable land led to the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1960. In the late 1990s a project was launched to channel waters from Lake Nasser on the Nile River to the western desert to create a new fertile area conducive to agriculture and development. It was scheduled to be completed in 2017.

Modern Egypt is the most populous and most advanced of all Arab nations. Egypt serves as the seat of the League of Arab States and has also taken on a leadership role among African nations. During his tenure, Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak presided over the Organization of African Unity. Egypt's social order is partially composed of intellectuals, government officials, urban businessmen, and landowners. Egyptians from this segment of the population have been more likely than other Egyptians to immigrate to countries such as the United States, mostly for economic or educational purposes. While almost a third of the workforce is engaged in growing crops or fishing the waters of the Nile and its tributaries, 51 percent of the population now labors in the service sector. Only 17 percent of the workforce is involved in industry.

In December 2011 a young man in Tunisia immolated himself to draw attention to the country's lack of employment and freedom. Thereafter, pro-democracy protests were set in motion throughout the Middle East, resulting in what came to be known as the “Arab Spring.” The following year, beginning on January 25, massive political demonstrations took place in Egypt, with protestors objecting to poor economic conditions, limits placed on suffrage rights and civil liberties, and widespread police brutality. President Mubarak's reform efforts failed to placate the general public, and he resigned on February 11, leaving the Supreme Council of Armed Forces to assume temporary control of Egypt. Egyptian Americans were outraged at Egyptian mistreatment of protestors and began lobbying the U.S. government to suspend military aid to Egypt. Democratic reforms within Egypt led to subsequent elections, and President Muhammad Mursi of the Muslim Brotherhood took office in June 2012.

Egyptian Americans are among the more recent groups to have immigrated to the United States. Unlike other peoples of Arab descent who settled in the Americas in large numbers as early as the mid-nineteenth century, Egyptians began to emigrate in significant numbers only during the latter part of the twentieth century. Although the majority left for economic or educational reasons, many Copts, Jews, and conservative Muslims emigrated because they were concerned about political developments in Egypt. Thousands of others left after Egypt's 1967 defeat in the Arab-Israeli War, with approximately 15,000 Egyptians immigrating to the United States from 1967 to 1977. The following three decades witnessed unprecedented movements of large Egyptian populations not only to the United States and Canada but also to Australia, Europe, and the Gulf Arab countries. Records from 2005 break down the immigration patterns by percentage: 11 percent of Egyptian Americans living in the United States at that time arrived before 1970. Another 18 percent immigrated in the 1970s, with the largest percentage—27 percent—arriving in the 1980s.

The majority of the first Egyptian immigrants to the United States comprised educated professionals and skilled workers. Their immigration was eased by the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, which welcomed certain professionals, especially scientists. According to 2011 estimates by the American Community Survey, of the 201,299 U.S. residents claiming Egyptian ancestry, 40 percent were born in the United States and 60 percent were immigrants. The largest concentration of Egyptian Americans are in New Jersey, New York, California, Illinois, Florida, and Texas.

Ancient Egyptians developed a pictographic and ideographic writing system known as hieroglyphics, which developed in several stages. Experts believe that pictographic communication evolved into a written

CENGAGE LEARNING, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 American Community Survey

language known as hieratic. In turn, hieratic evolved into a simplified language known as demotic. The Coptic language is viewed as a continuation of the traditional Egyptian language by some scholars and as a separate language by others. With the fall of the Egyptian empire and the eventual triumph of Islam over traditional modes of belief and a brief period in which Christianity predominated, the ancient language was lost altogether until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone, a tablet that included both demotic and ancient Greek translations of hieroglyphic text. The first writings were interpreted by Thomas Young, a British linguist, but it was not until 1822 that Jean-François Champollion fully deciphered the Rosetta Stone. Scientists have since concluded that this writing system, which functioned both vertically and horizontally in either long or abbreviated forms, has qualities similar to an alphabet.

Arabic has been the common language of all Egyptians since the eighth century. The dialect most often spoken in Egypt is Cairene Arabic, which is also the Arabic dialect most widely known throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Cairene Arabic is widely used by all Egyptian Americans at informal social gatherings. The great popularity of Egyptian singers and movies assists the dissemination of this dialect. Formal Arabic is used in religious services by Muslims and Copts. Recently, Copts have introduced English into their church services (usually in sermons) to maintain the participation of new generations of American-born Egyptians.

According to the 2011 American Community Survey estimates, 30 percent of Egyptian Americans speak only English in their homes, which represents a 13 percent increase from the 2000 Census. Although 70 percent speak their own language at home, they also speak English; 76 percent reported speaking English “very well.”

The majority of Egyptians are Muslim, while Copts (Orthodox Christians), the largest religious minority, are believed to form approximately nine percent of the religious community in Egypt. Both Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Copts have settled in the United States. Within this immigrant community, the number of Egyptian Christians surpasses the number of Egyptian Muslims, although Egyptian Muslims in the United States have increased their numbers steadily since the 1990s.

Islam, which was introduced to Egypt in 641 CE, is a religious system that permeates Egyptian society at every level. “Islam” literally means submission to the will of God. A Muslim is one who has submitted to Allah (or God) and who acknowledges Muhammad as God's Prophet. Islamic tradition takes into account the doctrines of both Judaism and Christianity, and Muslims consider the Prophet Muhammad the last in a series of prophets that included Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

Muslims believe in one God and in the afterlife as do Christians and Jews. Islam also acknowledges Jews and Christians as “people of the Book” or Bible (ahl al-Kitab) and has granted them privileged status from the early days of the Islamic Empire. For this reason, religious minorities throughout the Arab world have survived and flourished during periods of severe cultural and religious repression elsewhere.

Islamic acts of devotion and worship are expressed in the five Pillars of Islam. The first Pillar is the profession of faith, “There is no God but God, and Muhammad is his Prophet,” or the Shahada, which requires the believer to profess the Unity of God and the mission of Muhammad. The assertion forms part of every prayer.

The second Pillar is prayer, or Sala, which is required five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and dusk. It may be performed in a state of ritual purity. The worshipper has the choice of praying privately in open air, in a house, with a group, outdoors, or in a mosque. Because Islam opposes the practice of withdrawing into ascetic life, there is no priesthood. There are, however, Ulama, or learned men who are well versed in Islamic law and tradition. Muslims also pray in mosques on Friday, their holy day of the week.

The third Pillar is almsgiving, or Zakat. This embodies the principle of social responsibility. The fourth Pillar is fasting, or Saum, which is observed during the month of Ramadan when God sent the Qur'an to the angel Gabriel who in turn revealed it to the Prophet. Fasting demands complete abstinence from food and drink from sunrise to sunset. Ramadan is followed by Iftar, a sumptuous banquet where friends and family gather to celebrate the break of fast. Dearly cherished by Egyptians in Egypt, this tradition is observed closely in America where it is celebrated with Christian Egyptians and American friends alike.

The fifth Pillar is the pilgrimage to Mecca, which is required of every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so at least once in a lifetime. Attached to the experience of the pilgrimage is an added status: the person will henceforth be addressed as alHaj or alHajjah, a title which carries great prestige. Many Egyptian Muslims living in the United States go on a Haj, or pilgrimage, as well as an Umrah, a modified pilgrimage which can take place at different times of the year and not necessarily at the officially specified time.

The other significant group of Egyptian Americans are the Coptic Christians. The Copts are native to Egypt, having converted to Christianity as early as the first century CE. After the Arab conquest of Egypt in 642, the Coptic language began to give way to Arabic; however, Coptic is still used as the liturgical language in church services, is taught in Sunday schools, and is employed in some daily communications among Ulama.

Today, Coptic is still used in church services in the United States where large congregations of Egyptian Copts are found. There is an archdiocese in Jersey City, New Jersey, where one of the first American Coptic churches was founded in the early 1960s.

Among Muslim Egyptian Americans, the role of the mosque as a social center and as a religious gathering place is changing from what it was in Egypt. Today, for instance, women not only pray at the mosque but also participate in social activities there. The custom of women praying at the mosque has now become prevalent in Egypt, having been brought back there by returning Muslim Americans. Interaction between Egyptian Americans and other Muslim Americans has been enhanced by the increased prevalence of mosques in the United States in the twenty-first century.

There are well-developed cordial and reciprocal social relations between Egyptian Copts, Egyptian Muslims, and the general American public. In Egypt, Page 65  |  Top of Articlemany Copts have adopted a number of Islamic customs, just as some Egyptian Muslims have adopted certain Coptic customs, and this has carried over to the United States. Egyptian Copts sometimes share in the festivities of Ramadan, while Muslim Egyptians celebrate certain aspects of Christmas and the New Year.

In 2011 the ousting of President Mubarak and the suspension of the 1971 constitution ushered in a return to traditional Islamic laws and customs in Egypt, and some Christian Egyptian Americans and international women's groups have become concerned that religious beliefs have taken prominence over civil laws. Nevertheless, the majority of Egyptian Americans who continue to vote in Egyptian elections because of dual citizenship voted for the Islamist candidate in the 2012 presidential election.

Traditions and Customs Historically, Egyptian immigrants and their American-born children have had little difficulty adjusting to American culture, and this is particularly true of Christian Egyptian Americans. Leaders of early Egyptian immigrant groups lobbied the American government for Egyptian Americans to be counted as “White” in official accounts, believing that it would prevent discrimination against them. When the 2010 census was taken, however, Egyptian American groups joined other groups in urging Arab Americans to assert their identity independence and classify themselves as “Other Race” rather than “White.”

The ease of assimilation has been largely due to the strong educational background of most Egyptian Americans. Numerous Egyptian Americans have also married outside their ethnic community, which has facilitated the assimilation process. Following World War II and the creation of Israel, however, conceptions of Egyptian Americans were often complicated by a pro-Israel and anti-Arab bias. That bias was considerably heightened by the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, conducted by members of the al-Qaeda organization. The subsequent War on Terror placed the civil rights of some Egyptian Americans in jeopardy. The American media has further contributed to the conception of all Arabs as being anti-American and all Muslims as repressive and violent.

Egyptian American organizations, including those that are professional, academic, and business-oriented, have served to unite Egyptian Americans and helped to preserve and promote pride in the Egyptian culture. Such organizations include the Egyptian American Professional Society, the Egyptian Physicians' Association, and the Egyptian Businessmen's Association. Several have also joined the numerous organizations of the more established Arab American community such as the Arab American University Graduates, the American-Arab Relations Committee, and the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC).

Cuisine Egyptian cuisine is a mixture of Middle Eastern cuisine and a modified continental (French-style) cuisine. Considered Egypt's national dish, kushari provides a hearty meal of pasta, rice, lentils, garlic, and chickpeas cooked in a tomato sauce. Other traditional Egyptian dishes include mullkhia, a thick green soup made from chicken or meat broth (sometimes rabbit). Squab (stuffed pigeon) and fatta, a rice-and-bread dish, are among the many favorites. Traditionally, fatta is served to mark special occasions. What came to be known in the United States as falafel is also a favorite, as is the layered sweet baklava. Another popular food is kahk, a sweetbread baked for special feasts. To make kahk, a well-kneaded dough of flour and rarified butter is filled with honey or a mixed-nut filling. The dough is beautifully decorated by a special tool, a minkash, then is baked and sprinkled with powder sugar. Kakh can be purchased at bakeries.

During Lent and Advent, Egyptian Copts do not eat meat or dairy products, a practice that has given rise to many delicious nondairy and meatless grain-based meals that are a delight to the vegetarian and the health-conscious. Muslims are prohibited from eating pork and therefore buy their meats at halal or kosher butcher shops. In Brooklyn, on Atlantic Avenue, a large concentration of Arab and Muslim shops cater to the needs of the Middle Eastern community at large. Jersey City also has a growing community of Egyptians where one can find most of the specifically Egyptian ingredients to prepare native dishes. Middle Eastern specialty items can be found at grocery stores in almost every major U.S. city, and some staple items—such as pita bread—are found at supermarkets across North America.

Traditional Costumes Since the turn of the century, urbanized Egyptians have adopted Western-style clothing, and the vast majority who have come to the United States have retained this custom. Since the 1990s some Muslim women have chosen to dress in a traditional Islamic garment consisting of a floor-length, long-sleeved dress and a head covering. Many Muslim women adhere only to the tradition of covering the head, whereas the vast majority of Egyptian Americans wear the usual Western-style wardrobe. The men wear suits, though on rare occasions they wear a gallabiyya, a long white robe, for prayers or at home. When dressed casually, Egyptian males frequently wear Western clothing.

Traditional Arts and Crafts While decorating stone, plaster, wood, ceramic, glass and textiles with elaborate forms of calligraphy and other traditional crafts such as matting, carpet weaving, and silk weaving have seen a revival in modern Egypt, most Egyptian Americans have been assimilated into the workforce and no longer engage in such activities. On the other hand, Egyptian American organizations have made a concentrated effort to promote an appreciation of Egyptian art among their members.

Dances and Songs Egyptian Americans continue to promote their native culture at cultural festivals held throughout the United States. Egyptian American organizations also work with other cultural organizations to bring this culture to the attention of the American public. Egyptian belly dancing has been enjoying a revival in the United States, and belly dancers perform in traditional Egyptian costumes composed of scarves, veils, harem pants, and accessories. American dancer and choreographer Diana Calenti introduced Egyptian folkloric dance in the 1990s, blending both traditional and modern forms of dance to attract a wide audience while depicting expressions and emotions common to both the United States and Egypt.

Egyptian rap, which surfaced in the 1990s, has become popular among many Egyptian American young people. This music is available to an international audience via the Internet and social networking sites. It is considered a blend of African and Arabic rap. It is not widely accepted within Egypt because its themes are often considered anti-Muslim. Consequently, Egyptian rap artists such as MTM, Princess Emmanuelle, and Cairo City G'zz tend to operate underground. Oklahoma-bred Egyptian American country singer Kareem Salama has introduced his culture to mainstream audiences. A Muslim, Salama acknowledges that his faith is very much a part of the songs he writes.

Holidays Most Egyptian holidays are religious observances. There are two major Muslim holidays: Eid al Fitr, which falls at the end of Ramadan marking the end of the month-long fasting period, and Eid al-Adha (Feast of Sacrifice), which follows soon after, commemorating the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac to God and the substitution of the sacrificial lamb. Some Egyptian Americans, along with other Arab Americans, decorate their homes, exchange gifts, and hold festivals to celebrate these holidays. They may also be celebrated by a pilgrimage. Because these holidays are so important among Muslims, Arab American groups continue to lobby to have them accepted as legitimate holidays for Arab American students. The Islamic New Year as well as the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad are also important holidays for Muslims. Major holidays are celebrated at the mosques and among friends.

Christian Copts celebrate Christmas according to the Gregorian calendar, usually on January 6–7 of every year. Easter is a weeklong observance of strict religious rituals culminating in Good Friday, a midnight mass on Holy Saturday, and a mass at dawn on Easter Sunday. A secular holiday, the New Year is celebrated by both Muslims and Christians.

Another important holiday is Sham al-Nassim, a rite of spring dating to ancient times that is celebrated on the Monday after Easter Sunday. Egyptians go out into the fields or onto the beaches and eat a specially prepared salted fish (fisikh), onions or shallots, colored hardboiled eggs, fruits, and sweets. This tradition is dying out in the United States because Monday is a workday. Since Sham al-Nassim is a moveable feast, Egyptians sometimes celebrate it on Easter Sunday so that everyone can participate. It is an occasion when all Egyptians, irrespective of religious faith, can get together and enjoy themselves.

Health Issues Of the first wave of immigrants from Egypt to the United States, many were trained physicians who acquired additional fields of specialty in the United States. Many of these physicians serve people in their own communities, who turn to them for advice and medical care and who also find Egyptian American medical doctors a source of comfort, especially if they are still in the midst of overcoming the language barrier.

Within the general Egyptian American population, particularly among recent immigrants from Egypt, cultural issues that are common among Arabs may come into play. Reports from health care workers indicate that Egyptian Americans do not always consider nurses professionals and consequently may ignore their instructions or advice. Arab Americans may also have difficulty accepting help from social workers, as they typically believe that family life is private. Those who are ill may refuse to take medications or receive IV treatment while fasting during Ramadan. Mental illness carries a strong stigma within Arab culture, and as a result Arab Americans may refuse to seek help for such conditions. Because the American health system is so different from the subsidized health care with which most Egyptians are familiar, new immigrants may not understand how the American health care system works.

Death and Burial Rituals Some Egyptian Americans adhere to traditional Arab views and practices when dealing with death and burial. They tend to see death as being the will of God, but they do not usually feel comfortable when discussing death or dying. Because they believe that a body can continue to feel pain until it is buried, they do not approve of autopsies or cremation. When family and friends gather around a deathbed, they advise the dying to say a prayer that will allow them to enter Paradise. Burials generally take place within 24 hours.

Rituals call for a female's body to be washed by her husband or family members an odd number of times with soap and water. Perfumes are added to the water of the final washing. The body is then wrapped in five pieces of cloth, which are tied at the head and foot. During the burial, a body is placed facing Mecca. Only males are allowed to attend burials, and they each throw three handfuls of soil onto the grave. After being covered, the gravesite is usually marked by stones or by a simple marker.

Recreational Activities In Egypt, many recreational activities take place within private sporting Page 67  |  Top of Articleclubs, which offer restaurants, swimming pools, sports facilities, and playgrounds. These clubs are open to both Egyptians and foreigners. In the United States, Egyptian Americans participate in the same activities enjoyed by other Americans. They may also participate in activities carried out at mosques and in those promoted by groups such as the Egyptian American Organization, which sponsors culture festivals, lectures, and exhibits.

The nuclear family is the basic social unit of Egyptian society. Although the extended family also continues to play a dominant role in the intricate family grid, familial ties are beginning to loosen, even in Egypt. Some of these changes have become more accentuated in the United States. Wide distances may separate children from their parents, brothers, and sisters and from other members of the extended family. Traditionally, Egyptians grew up and spent their entire lives in the same neighborhood. Today, however, families of Egyptian Americans, like those of other Americans, are scattered throughout the fifty states.

The growing prevalence of intermarriage between Egyptians and Americans—most commonly between Egyptian-born men and American women—has challenged the family structure. A Muslim woman's husband is required by religion and law to convert to Islam, while a Muslim man's wife may retain her Christian or non-Muslim faith. In either case, the children must be raised as Muslims. In Egypt, women who marry non-Muslims may face arrest and possible loss of guardianship of their children to male family members. Christian Egyptians tend to be conservative and prefer that their children marry within the Coptic church. However, Egyptian Americans are less likely to adhere to this practice given their high level of assimilation within American culture.

Gender Roles Since the nineteenth century, women in Egypt have come to play a more prevalent role in improving their status and in increasing the degree of their participation within society. World War I and World War II brought radical change in the status of women in Egypt. By the 1920s women had begun to enroll in universities and entered the workforce as physicians, lawyers, and educators. Women further increased participation in the workforce after the 1952 Revolution and the implementation of the National Charter of 1962, which stipulated that “women must be regarded as equal to men, and must shed the remaining shackles that impede their free movement.” Consequently, they have enjoyed a relatively long tradition of active participation in the public domain and have much more freedom to move about without male chaperonage than do women in many Arab countries. However, in 2012 only a fourth of Egyptian women worked outside the home, and women continued to face considerable discrimination

Egyptian Americans celebrate the ouster of Hosni Mubarak (1928–) in 2011. JIM WEST/ZUMAPRESS / NEWSCOM

because of the emphasis on traditional roles. A 2011 survey conducted by the World Economic Forum ranked Egypt 125 out of 134 countries on gender equality. However, when considered among Arab nations, Egypt is seen as relatively progressive, especially within its large urban populations. Educated and urbanized women are more likely than uneducated rural women living in traditional households to consider themselves equal to males. In a demonstration of their political and social power, Egyptian females took an active role in the Egyptian Revolution that ousted Mubarak in 2011.

Whether they immigrated to the United States or are American-born, most Egyptian women are active within American society on several levels. Women tend to participate within the workforce, even those who are raising families. This is especially true of the second wave of immigrants, some of whom have not acquired employment on a par with their college backgrounds. These underemployed immigrants labor as food stand operators, baby-sitters, or waitresses either in family-run restaurants or in the catering trade. Many Egyptian American women have created lucrative catering businesses that specialize in preparing foods for Egyptian households. Many others have successful careers in medicine and accounting, with a high number of them in academia.

Boys are often treated differently than girls and are given more leeway when it comes to curfews and dating. However, because education is highly esteemed Page 68  |  Top of Articleby Egyptians, and because many members of the first generation of Egyptian Americans possess advanced college degrees, children—both boys and girls—are encouraged to attend college. Children who decide to attend school out of state generally obtain their parents' blessing, although some parents still prefer to have their children—especially their daughters—nearby. In some cases, mothers will move to another state just to live with their children. Some parents encourage their children to return to Egypt to obtain a degree, not only because it is less costly to do so (medical students receive free education in Egypt), but also because it ensures that their children will be supervised by members of the extended family.

Education According to the 2010 American Community Survey, 96 percent of Egyptian Americans had completed high school, 41 percent had attained a bachelor's degree, and 25 percent had completed a graduate or professional degree. Because the majority of first generation of Egyptian Americans are highly educated professionals, they have a tendency to apply to the best schools, private or public. In rare cases their children attend religious-affiliated schools such as those located in areas with large concentrations of Egyptian Americans. However, because of the emphasis on higher education, Muslims attending these schools tend to join regular school systems beyond the primary level.

Courtship and Weddings Among more traditional Egyptian families, many marriages are still arranged by relatives and marriages are celebrated with great fanfare. Egyptian Americans—particularly Muslims—typically worry about their offspring's dating habits and urge their children to marry someone of Egyptian descent or to choose someone from the larger community of Arab peoples. Such families commonly send their children back to Egypt to immerse them within Egyptian society in the hope that they will choose a bride or groom there. Some Egyptian Americans encourage marriage between cousins, a practice common in Egypt.

Among more westernized Egyptian Americans, however, young people are allowed a good deal of control in their choice of marriage partners. Intermarriage with non-Egyptians is common among Egyptian American families who have lived in the United States for extended periods of time.

According to the 2010 American Community Survey, 59 percent of Egyptian Americans males and 60 percent of females are married. Some 33 percent of males and 27 percent of females have never married, and 8 percent of males and 13 percent of females are separated, widowed, or divorced. Egyptian American households tend to be made up of married couples, but a quarter of such households are made up of non-family members. Five percent of Egyptian American households are female-headed, and 5 percent are male-headed. Among traditional Egyptians, women may obtain a divorce without the consent of their husbands if they are willing to cede all financial rights. Divorce is permissible among Coptic Christians only in the case of adultery or if a mate converts to another religion.

The first wave of immigrants consisted of individuals who either had obtained a professional degree or had come to the United States seeking further education. They pursued careers as doctors, accountants, engineers, and lawyers, and a good number joined the teaching faculties of major universities. The second wave held college degrees but had to accept menial jobs. When they first arrived, many drove taxicabs or waited on tables in restaurants. The economic recession and corporate downsizing undoubtedly have affected Egyptian Americans. Some enterprising citizens have gone into business for themselves. Because of the stigma attached to being unemployed or on welfare, Egyptian Americans have resisted receiving these benefits, but as time goes on their participation in social aid programs may become an increasing fact of life. According to the 2010 American Community Survey estimates, 12 percent of Egyptian American families live below the poverty line. The recession of the early twenty-first century led to an upswing in the number of multi-generational households within the Egyptian American community.

According to the 2010 American Community Survey, an estimated 68 percent of Egyptian Americans were in the labor force. Some 50 percent worked in management, professional, and other related occupations. Some 14 percent worked in service occupations, and 25 percent labored in sales and office jobs. Nine percent were engaged in production, transportation, and material moving. Economically, Egyptian Americans tended to do well economically, reporting a median family income of $62,812.

Egyptian Americans are only now beginning to show interest in municipal and national politics. As with every immigrant group, Egyptian Americans first had to establish themselves in society before venturing into the political arena. Unlike other groups of Arab Americans who have been in the United States for more than a century and who are only now coming into their own by being elected to positions in national and local government, Egyptian Americans only recently began to get involved politically, by exercising their right to vote and by supporting their preferred candidates. Because significant numbers do not belong to trade unions, they have had no perceptible influence on union politics. Since 9/11, Egyptian Americans have become instrumental in lobbying local legislatures on issues of civil liberties for Arab Americans. Lobbying efforts by Egyptian Americans and other Page 69  |  Top of ArticleArab groups led in 2012 to the California legislature passed the Workplace Religious Act, which addressed the issue of religious freedom for Arab Americans. It dealt specifically with the freedom to wear religious clothing and hairstyles in the workplace and prevented employers from segregating Arab Americans from customers or the public because of their appearance.

Up until the 1990s, Egyptian Americans tended to be politically conservative and were more likely to vote Republican than Democratic. Contrarily, in 1996, polls indicated that a majority of Arab Americans (29.6 percent) favored Democrat Bill Clinton over Republican Bob Dole (6.5 percent). In 2000, however, George W. Bush (42 percent) displayed a distinct advantage over Al Gore (36.5 percent) among Arab Americans as a whole. The following year proved to be a major turning point for Arab Americans, who shifted their allegiance to the Democratic Party in the wake of 9/11 and Bush's War on Terror. In 2008, for instance, more than half of all Arab Americans supported Barack Obama as compared to a third who expressed support for John McCain. The Arab American vote has become strategically important in key states such as Florida. Overall, a candidate's positions on issues involving the Middle East are a major factor in party support and voting patterns. Religion also plays an important political role. Among Muslims, 80 percent favored Obama over McCain in 2008, and more than half of Arab Christians also supported Obama.

Relations with Egypt As the number of Egyptian immigrants to the United States expanded after the 1990s, the Egyptian government began to express more interest in its citizens living in its expatriate communities and in maintaining good relations with them by encouraging them to invest in the Egyptian economy. For instance, in the past few years the Egyptian American Businessmen's Association has taken official tours to Egypt, meeting with officials and advising the country on various economic matters. The Union of Egyptians is a loosely structured organization that claims to meet Egyptian needs abroad by securing links with the homeland. Other organizations, such as the Egyptian American Professional Organization, prefer to avoid political matters, instead focusing on educational and cultural ties between Egyptian Americans and their home country.

Most Egyptian Americans have maintained close ties to their homeland, and large numbers of them hold dual citizenship. Thus, when a revolution broke out in Egypt in January 2011 in response to widespread public dissatisfaction, concern among Egyptian Americans continued to grow. Over 18 days of protesting, more than 300 people were killed. On October 9, twenty-seven Coptic Christians were killed in another demonstration in Cairo. Egyptian Americans joined their countrymen in blaming President Hosni Mubarak for the January deaths and the SCAF, which had been installed after Mubarak's resignation, for the latter deaths. They demanded that the United States suspend all military aid to Egypt.

Protests were held throughout the United States in cities containing large populations of Egyptian Americans such as San Francisco, California; Jersey City, New Jersey; Queens, New York; and Charlotte, North Carolina. Protestors waved Egyptian flags and carried protest signs. The votes of Egyptian Americans were instrumental in the election of President Muhammad Mursi, the Muslim Brotherhood candidate, in 2012.

Academia and Science In the fields of academia and science, significant contributions have been made by Egyptian Americans such as professor of women's studies and religion Leila Ahmed (1940–); professor of engineering Shihab S. Asfou microbiologist Ayaad Assaad, biochemist Rashad Khalifa (1935–1990); and chemist Ahmed Zewail (1946–). Major contributions in science have also been made by Egyptian-born Farouk El-Baz (1938), an archaeologist/geologist who is on faculty at Boston University's Center for Remote Sensing and has worked closely with NASA on American space exploration.

Business One of the world's wealthiest people, Houston financier Fayez Sarofim (1929–) is a venture capitalist and part owner of the pro football team the Houston Texans.

Entertainment Egyptian Americans have also played an important role in the field of entertainment. Within the world of music, composer and musician Halim El-Dabh (1921–) has written scores for Martha Graham ballets. Allen Adham is a cofounder of Silicon and Synapse, which became Blizzard Entertainment, the company that designed such popular video games as World of Warcraft and StarCraft. Egyptian-born Asaad Kelada is a producer/director who has been involved with television shows that have included Rhoda, Family Ties, Who's the Boss, Everybody Loves Raymond, Two and a Half Men, and The Office.

Government While still in her twenties, Dina Habib Powell (1973–) began making a name for herself in Republican political circles. She served as Director of Congressional Affairs and Senior Adviser to the Republican National Convention (1999–2001) before signing on as a Special Assistant to the President. By 2003 Powell was serving as George W. Bush's chief headhunter. In 2005 she began working with the State Department, serving as Assistant Secretary of State for Education and Cultural Affairs and as Deputy Undersecretary of State for Public Diplomacy and

Egyptian American Dina Habib Powell (1973–) is the former Assistant to the President and Director of Presidential Personnel for former U. S. President George W. Bush. PAUL J. RICHARDS / AFP / GETTY IMAGES

Public Affairs. In 2007 Powell left government to take on the position of president of Goldman Sach's Foundation, an organization that fosters global financial opportunities.

Journalism Award-winning journalist Mona Eltahawy (1967–) is an internationally respected expert on Arab and Muslim issues. Working from her New York base, her articles have appeared in newspapers around the world, including the Washington Post, the Toronto Star, and the Jerusalem Report. In September 2012 she received international attention of a different kind when she was arrested for spray painting over an anti-Jihad poster placed in a New York subway by the American Freedom Defense Initiative. She insisted that she had defaced the poster because as an Egyptian American, she refused to hate.

Sports After playing for Duke University (1986–1990), Alaa Abedelnaby (1968–) became the first Egyptian-born athlete to sign with the National Basketball Association. He spent five years with the Portland Trail Blazers and brief periods with other NBA teams such as the Boston Celtics and the Philadelphia 76ers. Omar Samhan (1988–), who played center for the St. Mary's Gaels, received national attention for scoring 61 points during championship games. He signed with a Lithuanian professional basketball club in 2010. The first and only Egyptian American to ever play with a major league baseball team, shortstop Sam Khalifa (1963–) signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1982 as the seventh draft pick. When he left the team in 1987, he retired from the world of baseball.

Stage and Screen Sammy Sheik (1981–) has appeared in movies such as Transformers, Dark of the Moon, and Charlie Wilson's War and in television shows such as The United States of Tara, 24, and Nikita. Although both an actor and a writer, Ronnie Khalil (1977–) is best known for his standup comedy routines that have been performed all over the world. Stephen Adly Guirgis has appeared as an actor in the movie Meet Joe Black and the television series Law and Order, but he is best known for writing for such series such as NYPD Blue, UC: Undercover, and Big Apple.

Egyptian Americans have come together to create a large number of organizations, which range from those specifically created to serve particular professions such as business and medicine to those that serve the Egyptian American community as a whole. Some of the more prominent of the latter type include the following.