A BRIEF HISTORY
The ancestors of the Persians had migrated to
the Iranian plateau with the other Indo-European tribes that descended the
steppes of Southern Russia beginning around 2000 BC. In remoter times they had
same ancestors as Indians, and are identified as proto-Indo-Iranians. This
semi-migratory people from the fourth to the third millennium BC, forged a
profound religious tradition, latter known as Zoroastrianism. This is the oldest
of the revealed world religions and has directly and indirectly influenced the
other religions in the area, i.e. Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a host of
Gnostic faiths (i.e. Northern Buddhism, Brahmans of India). Also to this day
elements from it are preserved in many aspects of the lives of the ordinary
Iranians, Muslims and non-Muslims alike.
The Zoroastrian scriptures are known
collectively as the ‘Avesta’ (loosely meaning ‘Authoritative
Utterance’). They were compiled at different times with Gathas being the most
ancient and the only part that is attributed to the prophet Zoroaster himself.
The rest of the surviving Avesta consists of liturgical texts preserved in
various later stages of the same language (Avestan) but not in exactly the same
dialect. There are also additions and interpretations added during the later
Iranian dynasties i.e. Parthian (mid second century BC) and Sassanian (third
century AD). Zoroaster’s date is not precisely known. The archaic language of
the Gathas and it's closeness to the Indian Rig Veda (around 1700 BC) has
proposed the educated guess that Zoroaster lived sometime between 1700 and 1500
BC.
Many of the present day rituals and ceremonies
of birth, death and marriage are a continuation of the ancient faith and
customs. Many religious observances such as ‘Sofreh’, a traditionally female
religious gathering and ‘Rawzeh’ (reciting and chanting religious verses)
are Zoroastrian in origin. The ‘Sofreh’ feasts are specific to the Iranians
and are not shared by other Muslims. The marriage ceremony is very similar to
its’ pre-Islamic days. So are the observances and terminology used in rituals
of death such as ‘Cheleh’ (40th), ‘Hafteh’ (7th),
‘Sal’ (year) etc. Renewal festivals such as Persian New Year, Chahar Shanbeh
Suri, Shab e Cheleh and Mihregan are also deeply rooted in the ancient
tradition. Although most have lost their Zoroastrian religious significance but
they have maintained the same structure as they did before the advent of Islam
in 7th century AD.
The first wave of Iranians, ancient Medes and
Persians entered Western Iran from around the first millennium BC. By 7th
century, Medes had established themselves, made an alliance with Babylon and
overthrew the Assyrian Empire. In 549 BC, the Persians, led by Cyrus the king of
Anshan, rebelled, defeated the Medes, and founded the Achaemenian Empire. Anshan
is the old oriental name for the center of the eastern part of the Elamite
Empire on the southwestern upland, in a region that roughly covers the territory
the Persians later gave their name, Parsa.
The term Iran is derived from the Sassanian
concept of Eranshahr (‘Empire of the Aryans) in the third century AD and
exists in variant forms in Avesta and ancient Persia. By using Eranshahr,
Sassanian created a new ‘identity’ for themselves and their subjects that
became the political, cultural and religious home of all living there. In the
context of the Nazi perversion of the word ‘Aryan’ into a racial concept and
its interpretation as ‘of German and related stock’ it should be mentioned
that the word ‘Aryan’ has meaning only as a linguistic term designating the
eastern part of the Indo-European family of languages. It has nothing to do with
race and is simply a linguistic connotation.
In its ethno-linguistic and religious respects,
the word Ariya, which forms the basis for the Middle Persian Eran, can be traced
back to the Achaemenid period and even earlier. In their inscriptions
Achaemenian kings talk about their Aryan origin and speak of Ahura Mazda
(Zoroastrian Sovereign God and the Lord of Wisdom) as the’ God of the
Aryans’. However they put more emphasis on being Persian than Aryan and as
Persians they separate themselves from Medes, Bactrians (parts of Afghanistan)
and other Iranian speaking people.
With the coming of the Achaemenid an efficient
administration, a powerful military machine and new civil centers were created.
Temple cults were established and for the first time organized priesthood was
formed and a new ecclesiastical hierarchy replaced the loosely connected family
priests. Their Empire extended from India to North Africa. The result was the
creation of a state structure on an unprecedented scale, characterized by ethnic
religious and cultural heterogeneity. Their reign came to an end when the
Macedonian King Alexander the Great succeeded in breaking the eastern Iranian
resistance to his expansions into the Asian continent in 330 BC.
Following Alexander’s death the Empire was
divided between his heirs and the Seleucid dynasty of Iran was formed.
Alexander’s policies were followed through political marriages with the
non-Greek dynasties, and through calling upon natives for military and
administrative tasks. Persian and Mesopotamian models were adopted by the
Seleucid in their choice of residences, patterns of personal relations, in the
court art relating to the king and above all in the royal ideology. Greek art,
philosophy and sciences were at the same time introduced into the Persian
territories.
The Macedonian domination of Iran lasted until
the mid-second century BC, when simultaneous pressure from the east (Parthia)
and the west (Rome) weakened their rule and they were defeated by the Next
Iranian dynasty, the Parthian or Arsacid after Arsaces, the founder of their
dynasty. Originally from Parthia in Northeast Persia they ruled over a great
multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society and exerted great influence over
Armenia, Syria and Asia Minor.
Achaemenid and the following dynasties,
Seleucid and Arsacid (Parthian) though encouraged religious institutions, built
magnificent temples and introduced major changes with respect to calendar and
scripture did not create theocratic states. This was partly attempted by the
Sassanian, completed and achieved by the later Muslim dynasties. From the
Sassanian times Iranian culture became increasingly religious. These people were
the hereditary guardians of a great temple to Anahita (Nahid, a major female
deity) at the city of Istakhr in Pars. Ardeshir, the first major king from this
dynasty made great use of religious propaganda, as a mean to establish his rule
over the vast Empire he conquered in the third century AD.
The result was the establishment of a single
Zoroastrian church, under the direct and authoritarian control of Persia. A
single canon of Avestan texts ‘Dinkard’ was established and replaced
fraternity of regional texts and communities. A strong, unified and growing body
of disciplined priests strengthened the church and implemented the religious
codes and observances with great efficiency. Gradually these priests managed to
dominate many aspects of the private and public lives of the ordinary citizens.
The conquest of Persia by the Muslim forces
from Arabia in the 7th century introduced many changes. Politically
the country became fragmented; the powerful centralized state was lost. For
centuries the country was ruled by different feudal and warlords from Arab,
Turkish, Mogul and occasionally Persian origins. Semi autonomous kingdoms were
formed with the Muslim caliphs as the ultimate source of authority at Damascus
in Syria or Baghdad. Independence wars were fought and lost. Culturally,
significant attempts were made to preserve the language, heritage and the
national identity. Through the unprecedented translation movement of the 8th
to 10th century AD, a great variety of books on sacred and secular
sciences were translated from Persian, Syriac, Greek and Indian sources into
Arabic to preserve ancient knowledge and national identities throughout the
Muslim Empire.
The advent of Islam slowly but drastically
changed the religious character of the country. Some of the most important
doctrines of Islam – such as belief in Heaven and Hell, the end of the world
and the Day of the Judgement – derived indirectly but ultimately from
Zoroastrianism. As a result they were disarmingly familiar, as were certain
Muslim practices: the five times of daily prayer (also adopted from
Zoroastrianism), and the injunction to give alms. However there were major
changes in doctrine, and use of Arabic for all religious and administrative
functions and the new fate could mean loss of national identity altogether.
Persians survived by adopting the Arabic script (Aramaic in origin) while
maintaining the phonetics and saved the ancient language from extinction.
Conversion meant changes not only in doctrine
but also in practices and rituals. The many kindly deities (Eyzads) to whom the
Zoroastrians had turned for help had to be renounced. Instead of the celebration
of holy days, with many joyful observances, feasts, music, plays and parties,
there was Friday prayers at the mosques, confronting a stone facing ‘qibla’
(direction to Mecca) instead of a bright leaping frame. There were no public
dancing or music, theaters were closed down veiling and segregation of sexes was
introduced.
Iranians adapted by shaping a tradition, which
made Islam, appear as a partly Iranian religion, i.e. the Iranian Shiite
movement. These people believed that the caliphate belonged rightly to Ali,
Prophet’s cousin and son in law. The Iranians supported the cause. A legend
was made that Husayn; the martyred son of Ali had married captive Sassanian
princess Shahrbanu, the ‘Lady of the Land’. This wholly fictitious figure,
whose name appears to drive from a cult-epithet of the Iranian goddess Anahita,
was held to have borne Husayn a son. Iranians organized, opposed the Umayyad
Caliphs and eventually led the house of ‘Abbas’, relatives of Ali to victory
in 750AD. The ‘Abbasids’ once in power, betrayed the Iranians, murdered
their leaders and at the same time revived the magnificence of the ancient court
and imitated Sassanian authoritarianism in religious matters. Massive
persecutions and forced conversions into Islam took place every where and it was
during this period that Islam took root and flourished in Iran.
In the process Islam grew steadily more
Zoroastrianized, with adaptations of funerary rites, purity laws, and a cult of
saints, (12 Imams) springing up in place of the veneration of the 12 major
deities, Eyzads. The Zoroastrian figure, Saoshyant, who comes at the end of the
time to save the world finds a place too and is replaced by the Time Lord, Imam
Zaman, the venerated Shiite 12th Imam. Such developments and
adaptations made it possible for the Iranians to preserve many of their ancient
rituals and traditions, while new ones were adopted and incorporated into the
belief system as well. At the end even though Zoroastrianism was reduced to a
minority religion in Iran itself its’ structure and rituals in particular
found a place in the new religion and are still practiced and revered by most
Iranians.
The second millennium saw the advancement of
the Turkish tribes moving into Persian and
Byzantium territories and eventually dominating all including Baghdad itself.
The Mogul invasion in 12th century
devastated the region and subsequent rule by their descendents divided the
country even more and created decades of civil war between the competing rulers.
Tamerlands’ conquest (14th century) worsened the situation
politically and economically. Nevertheless Islam remained and all the Asian
conquers and their dynasties were converted into Islam. Persian became the court
language in Turkey, India and her art,
sciences and literature dominated the royal courts in these countries.
The next major change happened in 16th
century with the Safavid dynasty. Devout religious leaders, they united the
country, improved the economy and adopted Shiism as the state religion. They
also created a powerful religious institution with thousands of preachers with
different ranks dominating and controlling every aspect of the life of ordinary
citizens. Some rituals and practices were adopted and copied from the Christians
and incorporated as genuinely Shiite practices, such as self-beatings with
chains. The well respected religious authority, Alameh Majlessi collected and
produced his extensive work, ‘Bihar al Anwar’ (Oceans of light) at this
time. The text became the standard for Shiite religious observances and is very
similar to Sassanian codes of observances outlined in Dinkard and Vandidad. A
religious doctrine was set and fixed with many Persian elements and rituals that
has lasted and is practiced till now.
19th century saw the beginning of
modernization in the country. After centuries of oppression and abuse by the
political and spiritual leaders change was demanded on every front. The results
were the constitutional revolution of the 1906 and subsequent coming into power
of the charismatic, western oriented Reza Pahlavi. The last Quajar king was
forced to abdicate and Pahlavi reign started in 1926. For the first time since
the Islamic conquest secularization took place and attempts were made to
establish a civil society based on European models and to create a truly Iranian
identity. Ancient Persia was glorified, improving economics; modern schools and
universities created a large and secular middle class with a powerful
centralized State and administration.
The attempt to naturalize the bond between the
royalty and the masses failed for many reasons and processes of secularization
met with persistent resistance amongst the religious hierarchy and the very
religious masses. The absence of political institutions hindered political
growth. The revolution of the 1979 saw the end of the monarchy and the formation
of a theocratic state totally based on Islamic legal code and practices. The
eight year war with Iraq, worsening of the economy and very restrict Islamic
code resulted in massive emigration of the Iranians.
For the first time a massive Iranian Diaspora
is formed outside the country. According to the Islamic republics’ statistics
almost four million reside outside Iran. There are many refugees and others who
have not registered and no one knows what is the exact figure.
This book is intended for Iranians living in
North America with English as their first or second language. Their sheer number
has created a great demand for preserving their past and with the new
generation, knowing about their culture has become a serious agenda.
Top
|