From Octavian to Augustus:

During the decades leading up to Julius Caesar's dictatorship, Roman coinage took on an increasingly personal character, displaying designs with a clear propagandistic message promoting the family or the political favorites of the moneyer who struck the coins for that year. Types commemorated victories, beneficent legislation, famous ancestors, and the like. The trend reached an extreme in early 44 BC when Caesar, stockpiling money to pay for his imminent Parthian campaign, had coins struck with his own portrait, a first for the official coinage of Rome (the images of living Romans had appeared on coins at the periphery of the empire as early as ca. 196 BC, but never on Rome's official state issues). This move was counted as one among many which showed Caesar's tendency towards monarchical behavior and which resulted in his assassination.

Far from removing this problem of self-aggrandizement on coinage, however, Caesar's death left the field open for a wide array of would-be rulers who copied the trend to promote themselves, first among the soldiers who supported their causes (for pay and rewards of booty), secondly among the rest of the populace. Thus, we have today a most interesting numismatic documentation of portraits and propagandistic messages of the men who struggled for power in the political vacuum left by Caesar's sudden departure; more to the point, we also can trace the rise to power of Octavian, who ultimately became Rome's first Emperor, known otherwise as Augustus. These are presented below.

44-42 BC: War of Vengeance against the Liberators

1. The Big Four: Pompey, Caesar, Antony and Augustus
   
   
2. MAP: Roman Empire during the Triumviral Period, 44-31 BC.
   
   
3. Bust of Pompey the Great, Julio-Claudian period (first half of first c. AD). Ny Carlsberg Museum.
   
   
4. Julius Caesar, denarius, mid-February to March 15, 44 BC: Perpetual Dictator. On reverse, the symbols representing various aspects of his power and political program.
   
   
5. Julius Caesar, denarius, Spring 44 BC: Caesar as Dictator and Pontifex Maximus; Venus Victrix. Image courtesy CNG.
   
   
6. Sepullius Macer, denarius, April/May, 44 BC: Antony in mourning (hence the beard), symbols of his position as Augur (capys and lituus); comemmoration of Ludi Victoriae Caesaris (the Games of Caesar's Victory). Image courtesy CNG.
   
   
7. Octavian, denarius, 42 BC: Octavian; the golden throne and chaplet of Caesar, items Octavian attempted to display at games (ludi Apollonaris) given by Brutus in the summer of 44.
   
   
8. Antony, denarius, ca. 43 BC, Gaul: Julius Caesar (deceased) and Antony. Image courtesy CNG.
   
   
9. Octavian, aureus, after 19 August 43 BC: Octavian and his adoptive father, Julius Caesar (deceased). Struck after Octavian became consul. Image courtesy CNG.
   
   
10. Octavian, aureus, Nov./Dec. 43 BC, Gaul: Octavian and Antony after reaching political accord. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
11. Triumvirs Antony, Octavian and Lepidus, bronze coin of Ephesus, after 43 BC. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
12. Lepidus, denarius, Spring-Summer 42 BC, Italy, or 40-36 BC, Africa: Two of the Triumvirs, Lepidus and Octavian.
    
    
13. Brutus, denarius, summer of 42 BC, Greece: Brutus; pileus and daggers commemorating Caesar's assassination on the Ides of March (EID[ibus] MAR[tiis]). Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
14. P. Servilius Casca Longus and Brutus, "Liberators" (and Assassins), denarius, 42 BC, Western Asia Minor: Neptune; Victory tramples a broken scepter and tears up a royal diadem, both symbols of Caesar's attempt at "regnum." Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
15. C. Cassius Longinus, "Liberator" (and Assassin), aureus, Summer 42 BC, Sardis (?): Last issue of Cassius, commemorates the capture of Rhodes. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    Octavian, issued by L. Livineius Regulus, mid- or late-42 BC, Rome: Struck either just before Philippi as a predictor of success (Summer), or just after, as a commemoration of the defeat of Brutus and Cassius.

    41-38 BC: Shifting alliances

    Protagonists of the War in Perusia (Northern Italy), 41 BC.

16. Lucius Antonius, denarius, 41 BC Struck when Lucius was consul, likely to pay for the expenses of the Perusine War (Antony's portrait is on the reverse).
    
    
17. Eumenaea, Asia Minor. Bronze coin of ca 42-40 BC: Fulvia in the guise of Victory. (Photo: ex Munzen und Medaillen Catalogue)
    
    
18. Octavian, denarius of late 41 BC, traveling mint in Cisalpine Gaul: The reverse depicts an equestrian statue voted to Octavian by the people, without approval of--or reference to--the Senate, hence the legend "POPVL(i) IVSSV" (=By order of the Populus). Octavian had alienated the Senate in his efforts to accomplish his assignment of settling veterans in Northern Italy, and because of his brutual behavior in teh Perusine War against L. Antonius and Fulvia, so at this time only the "people" appreciated him.

    Octavian and Antony "kiss and make up"

19. Antony, denarius ca. 41/40 BC, traveling mint: Antony and Octavian after the pact of Brundisium, in which they renewed their alliance, which had been damaged by the Perusine war. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
20. Octavian, denarius isued by Ti. Sempronius Graccus, Quaestor Designatus and Quattuorvir Monetalis, 40 BC, Rome: There is real significance in the fact that this issue, clearly intended by the standard, aquila, plough and decempeda (an agrimensor's ten-foot long measuring rod) to commemorate the founding of veteran colonies, is struck under the authority of a man named for the first of the revolutionary Tribuni Plebis. It would be interesting to know if Octavian picked the man for the job precisely because he wished to play upon popular perceptions of the Gracchi and their role as champions of the people (see thePOPVL IVSSV issue above).
    
    
21. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, aureus, Summer 40 BC, Corcyra (?): Antony; symbol of Ahenobarbus' naval victories (including one against the Triumvirs at Philippi). Struck after his reconciliation with Antony. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
22. Antony, "cistophor" (tridrachm), 39 BC, Ephesus: Commemorates the marriage of Antony and Octavia in 40. Antony as Dionysus, Octavia's bust over Cista Mystica.
    
    
23. Antony bronze coinage (AE As) issued for the "Fleet", Summer 38 BC, Eastern mint: Antony and Octavia; ship. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
24. Bust of Livia. Yale collection.

    38-36 BC: Last of the Pompeians

25. Bust of Pompey the Great. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotech.
    
    
26. Sextus Pompey aureus, 42 BC, Sicily: Dynastic issue showing Sextus on the obverse, his father Magnus and brother Cnaeus on the reverse. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
27. Sextus Pompey denarius, ca. 38 BC, Sicily: Scylla on a coin of Sextus Pompey denoting his control of Sicily and the straits leading to Italy from Africa, ergo, the grain routes. (Photo: ex Tom Cederlind catalogue)
    
    
28. Sextus Pompey denarius, 38 BC, Sicily: Neptune with features of Sextus; Naval trophy noting victory over Octavian's fleets.
    
    
29. Denarius of Sextus Pompey, 38 BC and of Octavian, after 34 BC: Octavian appropriates the imagery and ideology of the Pompeians (in which Pompey the Great is assimilated to Neptune) for himself, after having defeated Sextus at Naulochus. (Photo: ex P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus).
    
    
30. Agrippa, denarii, 38 BC, Gaul: Agrippa emphasizes Octavian's semi-divine status as son of the Deified Julius.
    
    
31. Glass paste "gem", ca. 36 BC: Octavian and Trophies of Sextus Pompey, including head of Pompeius Magnus. (Photo courtesy Michael Schubin)
    
    
32. Octavian, aureus 29 BC, Italy: Shrine of Diana Siciliensis with Naval Trophy. Commemorates victory at Naulochus.
    
    
33. Octavian, denarius, 29 BC, Italy: Octavian; Naval Trophy commemorating Naulochus (or, less likely, Actium). Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
34. Octavian, carved gem, late 30s BC: Octavian as Neptune, defeating Sextus Pompey. Kunsthistorische Museen, Vienna (photo from Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus)

    36-31 BC: Final Showdown

    Coinage of Antony and Cleopatra

35. Antony and Cleopatra, denarius of 34 BC, Alexandria: Obverse: ANTONI. ARMENIA. DEVICTA, bare head of Antony right; Armenian tiara behind. Reverse CLEOPATRA. [REGINAE. REGVM.] FILIORVM. REGVM., draped and diademed bust of Cleopatra right; prow before. Issued after the so-called "Alexandrian Donations."
    
    
36. Cleopatra, Egyptian bronze coin of the 30s BC. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
37. Antony, denarius, 32/1BC, Northern Greece: CHORTIS SPECULATORVM. One of the special "Legionary" issues struck for the army and navy at Actium.
    
    
38. Antony, denarius, ca. 32 BC, Northern Greece: The typical "Legionary" issue, struck to pay the troops stationed at or near Actium. Image courtesy CNG.

    Coinage of Octavian

39. Octavian, denarius, ca. 32 BC, Italy or Northern Greece: Venus, ancestress of Julians on obverse; reverse shows Octavian in "promachos" pose. Coin issued just before Actium. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
40. Octavian denarius, ca. 32 BC Octavian in "Adlocutio" pose on coin issued just before Actium.
    
    
41. MAP: The Battle of Actium, 2 September, 31 BC
    
    
42. Nemausus, bronze coinage of ca. 10 BC: Agrippa, Augustus and chained crocodile on a coin of Nemausus, a colony of veterans from the war against Cleopatra (The war of Egyptian Agression!). Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
43. Agrippa, commemorative denarius of 13 BC and commemorative as of Caligula, ca. AD 37-41.

    31-27 BC: Triumph and Reinvention of Octavian as Augustus

44. Octavian, denarius, 29 BC, Rome: Octavian driving a quadriga (four-horse chariot) in his triple triumph, August, 29BC.
    
    
45. Octavian, denarius, 29 BC, Rome: Foundation of Nicopolis and/or veteran colonies. Apollo Actiacus; Octavian, capite velato,ploughing the sacred boundaries.
    
    
46. Octavian, denarii, 29BC, Rome: Monuments and buildings in Rome. Rostral column for victory over Sextus Pompey; the new Curia Julia; Triumphal Arch for victory at Actium over Cleopatra (and Antony).
    
    
47. Octavian, denarius and quinarius, 28 BC, Rome: AEGYPTO CAPTA and ASIA RECEPTA types commemorate the addition of the province of Egypt to the empire, and the "recovery" of Asia from the renegade Antony.
    
    
48. Octavian, "cistophor" (tridrachm), ca. 28 BC: "LIBERTATIS P.R. VINDEX" Octavian as the vindicator/avenger of the Roman people's liberty.
    
    
49. Augustus, denarius, 20 BC, Colonia Patricia (Cordova), Spain: Honors to the new "Augustus." Augustus wearing the corona civica; the Clypeum Virtutis (Shield of Virtue) flanked by laurel trees, the new name "CAESAR AVGVSTVS" and "SPQR" (denoting from whence the honor came).

    Beyond 27 BC: Political and Religious consolidation

50. P. Carisius,Legatus Augusti, denarii, ca. 25 BC, Emerita (Merida), Spain: Foundation of the veteran colony at Emerita; Victories in the Cantabrian (Spanish) War.
    
    
51. Cn. Piso, Cn. F., sestertius ca 23/22 BC (?), Rome: Monetary reforms included a new "fiat" currency in bronze and copper.
    
    
52. P. Petronius Turpilianus, denarius, 19 BC, Rome: Commemorates return of military standards from Parthia.
    
    
53. Prima Porta statue of Augustus, ca. 20 BC
    
    
54. L. Vinicius, denarius, Rome 17/16 BC. Augustus' new Parthian Arch erected in the Forum Romanum in 19 BC
    
    
55. Coins of 38 and 17 BC: The Sidus Iulium (comet of Caesar's apotheosis)
    
    
56. Ludi Saeculares of 17 BC commemorated on various coins of 17-16 BC
    
    
57. Ludi Saeculares of 17 BC commemorated on coin of unknown mint. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
58. Mescinius Rufus, denarius of 17 BC: Vows for Augustus' safety and health. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
59. Multiple Aureus of Augustus, ca. 2 BC, Lugdunum (Lyons): Augustus as PATER PATRIAE. Naples Museum.

    Other Julio-Claudians

60. L. Lentulus, denarius, 12 BC, Rome: Augustus crowning Agrippa with a star (=apotheosis). Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
61. Tiberius Caesar, As, AD 10, Rome.
    
    
62. Augustus, aureus of AD 12/13, Rome: Tiberius in Triumph (also, designated "heir"). Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
63. Tiberius as Augustus, dupondius, ca. AD 17-22, Rome: Commemorates his "Clemency", an attribute thought by the Liberators to denote tyranny. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
64. Caligula, denarius, ca. AD 37/8, Lugdunum (Lyons): Caligula and his deified great-grandfather, Augustus. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
65. Germanicus Caesar on commemorative dupondius of Caligula, ca. AD 37-41, Rome. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
66. Agrippina Maior, commemorative sestertius of Caligula, ca. AD 37-41, Rome. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    
67. Nero and Drusus Caesares, commemorative dupondius of Caligula, ca. AD 37-41, Rome. Image courtesy CNG.
    
    

    For other excellent links to Augustus, go to my Augustus Web Page.

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