Graduate School of The Environment
Writing Guide
Introduction | Document structure | Style | Using references | Language, words & format |
Preparation for reproduction | Tips for writing | References on style and writing | Some final words
Language, words and format
Writing for an audience
A writer needs to consider the needs and abilities of the audience and pitch written work appropriately.
Word limits
You must present no more words than any limit that has been set. Word limits include all text and references but do not include tables, figures or appendices. However, page limits include all material.
Remove excess words by questioning the need for each word. Use a 'draft and edit' technique and be ruthless to the last.
Grammar
Consult a standard guide such as Hopwood (1988) if you need help with basic grammar. The tense of verbs and the 'person' through which you write must be consistent throughout any document. Results should be presented in past tense: the mean was 56.2, rather than 'a mean of 56.2 is obtained'.
Spelling
Spellings to be used are the preferred spellings in the latest version of The Macquarie Dictionary. Use local not overseas spelling. Where alternative spelling is acceptable, be consistent. If you are dealing with technical terms use the spellings of these terms that are favoured by leading journals in the subject.
Some useful hints include:
- Official titles of organisations and institutions should be followed exactly.
- Pay particular attention to the plural forms of technical terms (e.g. datum and data).
- When adding word-forming prefixes normally no hyphen is required, unless the last letter of the prefix is the same as the first letter of the root e.g. pre-eminent. For details and examples of the use of hyphens refer to sections 6.112-149 of the Style manual (AGPS 1994).
- Unless you are quoting the name of an organisation use the suffix `-ise' in preference to '-ize'.
- For spelling of place names refer to the postcode listing in the telephone book or the 1:100,000 or 1:250,000 topographic map series. Use accepted English forms of foreign place names. By convention now the possessive apostrophe is deleted.
- Use a dictionary if in doubt.
Non-discriminatory language
Be aware of any possible bias or discrimination exhibited explicitly or implicitly in your language (Style manual AGPS 1994 8.1-48). Language that trivialises or stereotypes particular groups of people or is sexist must be avoided. If you are quoting from any works that use discriminatory language you should make clear it is not your work.
Common usage
Avoid cliches and vague words. Colloquialisms or contractions should not be used. Jargon (the use of technical terms) should be avoided unless your reader is a technical person. If it cannot be avoided then unusual terms should be defined and abbreviations explained. Some words which have quite specific meanings but are commonly misused include: 'decimated' (literally one tenth killed); 'of the order of' (literally powers of 10); 'scan' actually means to read in detail.
Beware of misusing words that alter your intended meaning: e.g. only use 'because' in a causal context. Use 'as' when you want no causal connection to be made; 'since' implies time has passed but can have a causal implication. Other pairs often confused are: its and it's (literally it is); there and their; affect and effect; your, you're and yours; or and nor; can't and cant; wont and won't.
Scientific names
When referring to plant, animal or microbial species common names may normally be used. The scientific name should follow the common name in parentheses, in italics or underlined:
The river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) thrives in ...
Common names are not capitalised and only the first word (genus) or the scientific name is capitalised. For scientific names only genus and species are printed in italics while family, order, class, division or phylum are in normal print with the first letter capitalised. If many references are made to a variety of species or taxa a list giving the common name, the scientific name and taxonomic authority for each species should be included in the appendices. Where reference is made to one or more species the abbreviations 'sp.' and 'spp.' respectively can be used. If the reference is to a particular variety then the abbreviation 'var.' can be used. These abbreviations are not italicised.
Foreign words
Use English language terms wherever possible. Where there is no equivalent term or where it is accepted practice a foreign word may be used, in italics or underlined. If the foreign word or phrase is regarded as anglicised then normal print should be used. If unsure of whether to use italics or not, check The Macquarie Dictionary - any foreign word or phrase not listed there would probably require italics. Latin abbreviations (e.g., i.e.) should be in normal print (Style manual AGPS 1994 7.58-61).
Numbers and dates
Use words to express numbers up to nine in the text. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, most of which are familiar and obvious (sums of money, times, dates, weights, measures, etc.). When a number of similar things involving numbers greater and less than 10 are listed in close context, use figures throughout. Use words (not numerals) at the beginning of a sentence.
Use the words 'billion' and 'trillion' with care as they may be ambiguous, except in accepted technical terms (e.g. ppb). Use scientific notation or accepted prefixes 'mega-' (M), 'giga-' (G) and 'tera-' (T) to avoid confusion. The abbreviation for million is M.
In ordinary text write '$10', '5 p.m.' etc., not '$10.00', '5.00 p.m.', though the latter style may be appropriate for tables. A comma between each group of three numbers removes ambiguity e.g. 50,000 (Style manual AGPS 1994 10.1-81).
Use this style for dates: 29 July 1996.
Units of measurement
Standard international (SI) units should be used to present all data. Data drawn from sources in imperial units can be expressed in the original form with the metric conversion following in parentheses. All data must be followed by the 'units' in which they are measured. In tables the column headings can indicate units. Only accepted abbreviations may be used for units, as indicated in Appendix IV of the Style manual (AGPS 1994). Thus 'km' is correct whereas Km, kms, klm, etc. are all incorrect. Units are not followed by a full stop.
To indicate area or volume you should use the superscript ² or ³ as appropriate. For data in degrees Celsius or angles in degrees use superscript ° (note: temperature in kelvin (K) has no °).
Punctuation
For a full guide to the use of punctuation refer to sections 6.1-203 of the Style manual (AGPS 1994). A few 'tips' are provided here.
A full stop is used:
for abbreviations (but not contractions)
as a decimal point
at the end of the sentences.
Use commas to clarify meaning. For a stronger break but not enough for separate sentences use a semicolon.
A colon is used:
to introduce a list
to introduce a phrase that amplifies the previous words
to introduce quotations or questions
to indicate a ratio (in mathematics or mapping).
Use either a dash or a colon, not both together. Dashes are used:
to mark an abrupt change in a sentence
to gather up a long list in place of brackets in a sentence.
Use an apostrophe followed by an 's':
for the possessive form of plurals that do not end in 's' (e.g. men's)
to indicate possession where singular nouns end in 's' (e.g. Jones's).
An exception to this is when the noun ends in a 'voiced s' ('z' sound) preceded by a vowel as in Moses'. Note that apostrophes are not used to indicate plural form of abbreviations: EISs not EIS's. The possessive apostrophe is sometimes omitted where the plural noun is an adjective as in Sydney Teachers College and all place names (Crows Nest, St Leonards).
Use a hyphen in compound adjectives and if ambiguity threatens a `sweet-shop assistant' is not a 'sweet shop assistant'.
A slash (/) is used to indicate alternatives only.
Square brackets ([]) should only be used to enclose words or phrases inserted in the text by someone other than the author of the text.
Our rule on quotations is: 'Use single quotations marks except for "quotes within quotes".' Note the punctuation at the end of this example. The double quotation mark goes before the full stop; the single quotation mark goes after the full stop because the whole sentence is quoted.
Where several consecutive paragraphs are quoted, quotation marks should be repeated at the beginning and end of each paragraph, or else the whole passage should be indented without quotation marks. As a general rule, short quotations should be contained within the text, while long quotations (those exceeding about 30 words) should be set separately in a size smaller than that used for the text (usually one point smaller). A space should be inserted above and below matter set separately from the text thus:
When the public domain is seen to be cared for and progressively improved, private developers and property owners will begin to respond with more than grudging compliance (Delafons 1990 p24).
If you decide to shorten a quote then three full stops must be used to indicate that this has been done:
The area was described as 'hilly and much diversified ... so as to present the appearance of a tastefully arranged park' (Billings 1982 p32).
Single quotation marks should be used to indicate words or letters cited as such:
The leter 'e' is the most frequently used.
Capital letters
For full reference to the use of capital letters refer to sections 4.1-88 of the Style manual (AGPS 1994). Modern practice is to reduce capitalisation to a minimum. Use lower case for functional titles such as 'secretary' and 'convener' and for titles of appointment when they are used in a general sense such as 'committee', 'board'. For full official names of organisations capitalise all components except articles, prepositions and conjunctions. Official titles and offices should be capitalised, as should all names of people, places or brands. Lower case should be used for unofficial descriptive places: southern Victoria, north-western Australia.
Abbreviations and contractions
Use full stops after abbreviations such as 'Co.' or 'Esq.' but not after contractions such as 'Mr', 'Dr', 'Pty' or 'Ltd'. An exception to this is 'No.' (number) which, although it is a contraction of numero, takes a full stop, to avoid confusion with 'no'. Omit full stops in abbreviations made up of initial capital letters (NSW, CSIRO etc.) unless the letters happen to spell a word and there is danger of ambiguity. Use 'Unesco' (the style adopted by that organisation) not 'UNESCO'.
In general, use only the most familiar abbreviations and contractions (such as those exemplified above) in ordinary text, as distinct from forms and tables in which space-saving is essential. Do not use abbreviations in reference lists or bibliographies.
Use of italic print
Italic print (or underlining if italic print is unavailable) is used as follows:
Titles of books, films, acts of parliament, legal cases, artworks, names of newspapers and journals:
Australian Fisheries, Environmental Planning & Assessment Act 1979, The Sydney Morning Herald, Commonwealth v. Anderson.
Scientific names of genus, species and foreign words :
The funnel web spider (Atrax robustus) can be aggressive.
News & Events
Go to: