Ancient Rome
The Samnite Wars
Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permission)
"Remember, Roman, that it is for thee to rule the nations. This shall be thy task, to impose the ways of peace, to spare the vanquished, and to tame the proud by war." During the 40 years after the second
treaty with Carthage, Rome rapidly rose to a position of hegemony in
Italy south of the Po valley. Much of the fighting during this time
consisted of three wars against the Samnites, who initially were not
politically unified but coexisted as separate Oscan-speaking tribes of
the central and southern Apennines. Rome's expansion was probably
responsible for uniting these tribes militarily to oppose a common
enemy. Both the rugged terrain and the tough Samnite soldiers proved to
be formidable challenges, which forced Rome to adopt military
innovations that were later important for conquering the Mediterranean. Despite its brevity (343-341 BC),
the First Samnite War resulted in the major acquisition to the Roman
state of the rich land of Campania with its capital of Capua. Roman
historians modeled their description of the war's beginning on the Greek
historian Thucydides' account of the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War
between Athens and Sparta. Nevertheless, they were probably correct in
stating that the Campanians, when fighting over the town of Capua with
the Samnites, allied themselves with Rome in order to utilize its might
to settle the quarrel. If so, this may have been the first of many
instances in which Rome went to war after being invited into an alliance
by a weaker state already at war. Once invited in, Rome usually absorbed
the allied state after defeating its adversary. In any event, Campania
now somehow became firmly attached to Rome; it may have been granted
Roman citizenship without the right to vote in Rome (civitas sine
suffragio). Campania was a major addition to Rome's strength and
manpower. The absorption of Campania provoked
the Latins to take up arms against Rome to maintain their independence.
Since the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the city had become
increasingly dominant within the Latin League. In 381 BC Tusculum was
absorbed by being given Roman citizenship. In 358 BC Rome created two
more rustic tribes from territory captured along the Volscian coast. The
Latin War (340-338 BC) was quickly decided in Rome's favour. Virtually
all of Latium was given Roman citizenship and became Roman territory,
but the towns retained their local governments. The large states of
Praeneste and Tibur maintained nominal independence by becoming Rome's
military allies. Thus the Latin League was abolished; but the legal
rights that the Latins had enjoyed among themselves were retained by
Rome as a legal status, the Latin right (ius Latii), and used for
centuries as an intermediate step between non-Roman status and full
Roman citizenship. Rome was now the master of central
Italy and spent the next decade organizing and pushing forward its
frontier through conquest and colonization. The Romans soon confronted
the Samnites of the middle Liris (modern Liri) River valley, sparking
the Second, or Great, Samnite War (326-304 BC). During the first half of
the war Rome suffered serious defeats, but the second half saw Rome's
recovery, reorganization, and ultimate victory. In 321 BC a Roman army
was trapped in a narrow canyon near the Caudine Forks and compelled to
surrender, and Rome was forced to sign a five-year treaty. Later Roman
historians, however, tried to deny this humiliation by inventing stories
of Rome's rejection of the peace and its revenge upon the Samnites. In
315 BC, after the resumption of hostilities, Rome suffered a crushing
defeat at Lautulae. Ancient sources state that Rome initially borrowed
hoplite tactics from the Etruscans (used during the 6th or 5th centuries
BC) but later adopted the manipular system of the Samnites, probably as
a result of Samnite success at this time. The manipular formation
resembled a checkerboard pattern, in which solid squares of soldiers
were separated by empty square spaces. It was far more flexible than the
solidly massed hoplite formation, allowing the army to maneuver better
on rugged terrain. The system was retained throughout the republic and
into the empire. During these same years Rome organized a rudimentary
navy, constructed its first military roads (construction of the Via
Appia was begun in 312 BC and of the Via Valeria in 306), and increased
the size of its annual military levy as seen from the increase of
annually elected military tribunes from 6 to 16. During the period
334-295 BC, Rome founded 13 colonies against the Samnites and created
six new rustic tribes in annexed territory. During the last years of the
war, the Romans also extended their power into northern Etruria and
Umbria. Several successful campaigns forced the cities in these areas to
become Rome's allies. The Great Samnite War finally ended in Rome's
victory. During the final phase of this war, Rome, on another front,
concluded its third treaty with Carthage (306 BC), in which the
Carthaginians acknowledged all of Italy as Rome's sphere of influence. The Third Samnite War (298-290 BC) was the last desperate attempt of the Samnites to remain independent. They persuaded the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls to join them. Rome emerged victorious over this formidable coalition at the battle of Sentinum in 295 and spent the remainder of the war putting down lingering Samnite resistance. They henceforth were bound to Rome by a series of alliances. Main Page * Because we believe primary sources of history far surpass secondary sources, most of the lives of the following individuals are taken from ancient historians such as Plutarch, Pliny, Suetonius and Tacitus |