Annotated Chronology of the Korean Immigration
to the United States: 1882 to 1952
Yong-Ho Choe
Professor of Korean History Emeritus, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Ilpyong J. Kim
Professor of Political Science Emeritus, University of Connecticut
Moo-Young Han
Professor of Physics, Duke University
Foreword
The year 2003 was celebrated by the Korean-American communities across America as the centennial year
of the first Korean immigration to the United States commemorating the arrival of the first group of 102 Korean
laborers to Hawaii on January 13, 1903 aboard the ship S.S. Gaelic. Gala celebrations and many commemorative
programs took place in many areas, especially in Hawaii, Greater Los Angeles, Greater Washington DC, and
Greater New York areas that represent the four major Korean-American communities.
The arrival of the first group of Korean laborers to Hawaii in 1903 marks the beginning of what is referred to as
the first wave of Korean immigration to the United States, but the history of it can be traced back to the year
1882 when the very first diplomatic contact was established between the Chosun dynasty and the United States.
From that beginning in 1882 to the present day, the ebb and flow of the Korean immigration has been directly
influenced by the treaty and three major legislations of the U.S. Congress:
1. 1882, Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce and Navigation
2. 1924, The Oriental Exclusion Act
3. 1952, The McCarran-Walker Act
4. 1965, The Immigration Reform Act
The three major waves of the Korean immigration to the United States, directly influenced by these Acts of U.S.
congress, are:
First wave: 1903-1905, about 8,000 Korean laborers arrived in Hawaii.
Second wave: 1952 onward, war brides, adopted orphans, and college students
Third wave: 1965 onward, massive immigration of Koreans
Even before the first wave, following the signing of the Treaty of Amity in 1882, a small number of Koreans --
government officials, students, and political refugees, including Seo Jaepil (later Philip Jaisohn) -- visited the
United States before the turn of the century. The United States Immigration Office records indicate that as
many as 168 Koreans were admitted into the United States between 1899 and 1902; their identities are not
known, but they may have been private merchants, selling ginseng, etc.
The first full-scale immigration of Koreans to the United States took place between 1903 and 1905, during
which 7,291 Korean laborers arrived in Hawaii to work on sugar plantations. This is the first wave. The
Korean migration to Hawaii, however, was officially terminated in 1905 when Japan pressured the Korean
government to put an end to Korean emigrations. In 1910 Japan forcibly annexed Korea reducing it to a
colony of Imperial Japan, and by then a total of 7,622 Koreans was admitted into the United States. Of those
who migrated to Hawaii, about 1,300 Koreans moved on to the mainland United States (mostly California)
and about 1,100 returned to Korea between 1900 and 1915, according to the United States Immigration
Office records. Until 1910 all Koreans who came to the United States did so as the citizens of Korea.
Between 1924 and 1952, that is, between the Oriental Exclusion Act and the McCarran-Walker Act,
only about 900 Korean students, as non-immigrants, were allowed into the United States. As far as the
immigration itself is concerned, no Koreans (and other Asian, with the exception of the Filipinos) could come
to the United States as immigrants during this period.
The second wave of the Korean immigration began with the enactment of the McCarran-Walker Act in
1952, which removed the ban against Asian immigration while maintaining the discriminatory quota system
based on the national origins. The second wave consisted largely of three groups. The first group was the
war brides, women married to American soldiers. Suffering from cultural shock and lacking education and
technical skills needed for gainful employments, many of them went through difficulties in adjusting to the
American life. The second group was Korean children who were adopted into American families. The
Korean War produced a large number of orphans who lost their families, and many American families
adopted these children to provide them with homely environment in the United States. The third group was
college students who pursued academic programs at various American universities and colleges. Upon
completion of their studies, many of them returned to their homeland where they became important leaders
at various levels in both public and private sectors. Those who remained in the United States went on to
become productive members of the American society, many making useful and significant contributions in
their chosen professional fields.
With the enactment of the Immigration Reform Act of 1965, racially discriminatory barriers against Asian
immigrants were removed, allowing a large number of Asians including Koreans to gain admittance into the
United States. This marks the beginning of the third wave. Taking advantage of the new immigration law, a
new wave of Korean immigrants reached the United States seeking new economic and educational
opportunities and better quality of life, and they were settled largely in such cities as Los Angeles,
San Francisco, Houston, Chicago, Boston, New York, and Washington, D.C. Unlike the earlier groups,
the new immigrants from Korea entered the United States along with their family members and also in larger
numbers, enabling them to form their own neighborhoods—the so-called ¡°Koreatowns¡±—in some cities.
Usually occupying the blighted sections of the cities, these ¡°Koreatowns¡± played an important role in
revitalizing the urban life of the United States. Although in general they were well educated, many with
professional backgrounds, the new Korean immigrants were mostly obliged to start at the bottom stratum of
the American society due to their unfamiliarity with American life and culture. Resourceful and hard-working,
they nevertheless have so far been quite successful in overcoming the adversities and made significant
contributions to enriching the economy and the multi-cultural dimensions of their adopted country.
The history of the Korean immigration since the enactment of the McCarran-Walker Act of 1952 and the
Immigration Reform Act of 1965 is being continuously written everyday by each and every Korean-
Americans of today, and any historical treatment of the present can perhaps wait for some more time to
pass. In this chronology, we will deal with the important events and people during the first 70 years, from
1882 to 1952, of the history of the Korean immigration to the United States - from the Treaty of Amity
to the McCarran-Walker Act.
About the authors
Professor Yong-Ho Choe's recent works include the forthcoming book Koreans in Hawaii, 1903-1950,
to be published by the University of Hawaii Press and an article, History of Korean Church: A Case
Study of Christ United Methodist Church, in the book Korean-Americans: Past, Present, and Future,
dited and contributed by Professor Ilpyong J. Kim.
Professor Ilpyong J. Kim's recent works include an article, A Century of Korean Immigration to the
United States: 1903-2003, in the book Korean-Americans: Past, Present, and Future, edited and
contributed by Professor Ilpyong J. Kim. Professor Kim is the founding President of the International
Council for Korean Studies (ICKS).
Professor Moo-Young Han's recent works include An Annotated Chronology of Korea¡¯s Science and
Technology, published 2004 in the Korean-American Forum, and republished in the book Korea¡¯s
Electronics Industry, 2004 Edition, University of Maryland. Professor Han is the Editor-in-Chief and
the founding Chairman of the Society of Korean-American Scholars (SKAS).
The Annotated Chronology, 1882-1952
1882
The United States officially established diplomatic relations with Korea on May 22, 1882, when commodore
Robert W. Schufeldt negotiated and signed the Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce and Navigation at
Chemulpo (present-day Incheon). This was the second such treaty Korea signed with any country, first with
Japan, and the first treaty Korea signed with a Western country. This treaty would set in motion a chain of
events that eventually led to the first wave of Korean immigration to Hawaii in 1903.
1883
In May 1883, Lucius H. Foote arrived in Seoul as the first United States Minister to the Kingdom of Korea,
the Chosun dynasty.
At the urging of Minister Foote, King Kojong (1852-1919) dispatched the first diplomatic mission to the United
States in 1883, headed by Min Yeong-Ik, who was generously received by President Chester A. Arthur and
toured the United States for three months, observing the modern institutions and installations. King Kojong was
the 26th king (the second last) of the Chosun dynasty. King Kojong ascended to the throne in 1863 at the age
of 11 and was forced by the Japanese to abdicate in 1907. From 1863 to 1873, however, his father,
Daewongun, as the Regent ruled Korea.
Yu Giljun, a member of the Korean Mission, remained in the United States and enrolled at Dummer Academy
in Massachusetts, thus becoming the first Korean student in the United States.
1884
In September 1884, Dr. Horace N. Allen arrived in Korea as the first Protestant missionary and was allowed to
stay in Seoul under the pretense of being a physician to the American Legation.
In December 1884, an unsuccessful coup, known as Kapshin jeongbyeo, was attempted by a group of
progressive reformers. When the coup attempt failed, its leaders, such as Kim Okkyun, Pak Yeonghyo, and
Seo Jaepil (later Philip Jaisohn), sought refuge in Japan. By miraculously saving the life of Min Young-Ik,
a nephew of Queen Min, who was seriously wounded during the coup attempt, Horace Allen began to gain
confidence and trust of King Kojong and Queen Min.
1885
Seo Jaepil (later Philip Jaisohn) and Seo Gwangbeom, both leaders of the failed coup in 1884, arrived at
San Francisco, thus becoming the first Korean political refugees in the United States.
Seo Jaepil obtained a United States citizenship in 1888, adopting an anglicized name of Philip Jaisohn
(1864-1951). He was the first Korean to become an American citizen. In 1892, he graduated from
Columbian Medical School, now a part of George Washington University, thus becoming the first Korean to
have received an M.D. degree from an American university. Jaisohn devoted the majority of his life to the
cause of Korean independence. He died in 1951 in Philadelphia. More on Jaisohn is available at the
Philip Jaisohn Memorial Foundation in Philadelphia (See Resouces below for the URL of its website.)
1896
Philip Jaisohn returned to Korea from the United States. He started a newspaper Dongnip Shinmun with
an English title of The Independence.
Philip Jaisohn organized the Independence Club (Tongnip Hyeophoe), a civic organization for reforms, to
which many young reform-minded people (including Syngman Rhee) joined. It promoted the ideas of
popular democracy, freedom, and nationalism, which Jaisohn learned in the United States. He was the main
mover of the Independence Arch (Tongnipmun) project that was erected in Seoul to promote the idea of
Korean independence.
1902
King Kojong approved the measure to recruit Korean laborers to work in Hawaii sugar plantations. The
approval came largely through the efforts by Horace N. Allen. With the fund provided by the Hawaii
Sugar Planters Association, David W. Deshler set up the East-West Development Company (Tongseo
Kaebal Hoesa) at Incheon to recruit Korean laborers.
On December 22, 97 Koreans (54 men, 21 women, and 22 children) left Incheon aboard a Japanese ship,
Genkai-maru, for Japan. At Nagasaki, they along with other Koreans arriving from other parts of Korea,
went through physical examinations, and 102 who passed physical check boarded a United States ship,
Gaelic.
In October, Ahn Changho (1878-1938) arrived in San Francisco. Along with Philip Jaisohn, Ahn was one
of the two most prominent leaders for the Korean independence movements in America. He also traveled to
Korea and China in his quest for the Korean independence movement. He was imprisoned by the Japanese
while traveling to Korea and China and died in prison in 1938. Ahn¡¯s daughter, Susan Ahn Cuddy of Los
Angeles, heads the Korean American Heritage Foundation in Los Angeles (See Resources below for the
URL of its website.)
1903
On January 13, 102 Koreans (56 men, 21 women, 13 children, and 12 infants) arrived at Honolulu aboard
the S.S. Gaelic and were assigned to Waialua Sugar Plantation on the island of Oahu, marking the beginning
of Korean immigration to the United States.
In August, Sinminhoe (New People¡¯s Society) was organized in Hawaii with Hong Seungha as its first
president, thus becoming the first Korean organization in the United States.
In September, Chinmokhoe (Friendship Society) was organized in the San Francisco area under the
leadership of Ahn Changho.
1904
In 1904 Syngman Rhee (1875-1965) came to the U.S. to study and became another leader for Korea's
independence. He received a Ph.D. in international affairs from Princeton University in 1910. In 1920,
Rhee moved to Shanghai, China to assume the Presidency of the Korean Provisional Government, the hub
of independence movement by overseas Koreans. He returned to Korea in 1945, after Korea's liberation
from Japan. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established in 1948 with the support of the U.S.
military government in Korea (1945-1948) and Rhee became the first and founding president (1948-1960).
However, he became a stubborn dictator and in 1960 was exiled to Hawaii by a nationwide revolution by
angry students. He died in Hawaii in 1965.
1905
In 1905, Yongman Park also came to the U.S. to study and entered the University of Nebraska. In 1912,
Park moved to Hawaii where he founded the All-Korean Association of Hawaii. He also founded there the
Korean Military Corps in 1914, to fight for Korea's independence. He believed that Korea's independence
could only be achieved by means of military power. The clash of philosophy between Park and Rhee
resulted in bitter disputes. After the split with Rhee, he went to Vladivostok, Russia to build a military base
there, but he was assassinated in China in1928. Details of his assassination are not well known.
The year 1905 also marks the end of the first wave of Korea immigration to the United States. In April,
the Korean government ordered the prohibition of Korean emigrations at the pressure of Japan. Although
the Hawaii Sugar Planters Association desired the continuous supply of Korean labor and there was a
steady stream of Koreans willing to work in Hawaii, Japan did not want Koreans to compete against
Japanese workers in Hawaii.
7,400 Koreans were admitted into the United States between 1903 and 1905; most of them went to Hawaii.
The list of Korean passengers arriving in Honolulu from 1903 to 1905, transcribed from steamship
passenger manifests, is available on the website of the Korean Centennial. The 137-page document
(in PDF format) lists 6,740 passengers and includes list of ships on which they traveled and a chronological
list of voyages. The file is 647K in length. (See the list of resources below)
1906
In May, the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League was organized on the West coast as an increasing
number of Japanese and Koreans migrated from Hawaii. In October, the San Francisco School Board
ordered the segregation of all Chinese, Japanese, and Korean children.
1907
In February, in an attempt to ease international tension over race issue, the ¡°Gentlemen¡¯s Agreement¡± was
reached between the United States and Japan to prevent Japanese and Koreans immigrations to the United
States. Korean migration to the mainland United States from Hawaii effectively ended.
1908
In March, Durham White Stevens, an American employed by Japan as an advisor to Korea¡¯s foreign
ministry, was shot to death by Chang Inhwan (1875-1930) at the San Francisco Ferry Station. Jeon
Myeongun also fired at him but his gun malfunctioned. Stevens was embarking on a trip in the United States
to advocate Japanese control over Korea.
1909
On February 1, Daehanin Gukminhoe, the Korean National Association ( KNA) was founded for a grand
unity of all Koreans in the United States with the merger of Kongnip Hyeohoe and Han-In Hapseong
Hyeophoe. It was supposedly one organization with two headquarters; North America at San Francisco
and Hawaii at Honolulu. Its grandiose ambition was to bring together all Koreans abroad, including those in
Mexico, China and Siberia. In Hawaii, KNA acted as a semi-governmental organization, requiring all male
adults to pay a toll tax and exercising minor police and judicial power.
On February 10, Sinhan minbo (The New Korea) inaugurated its first publication, succeeding Konglip sinbo,
as the official weekly newspaper of the KNA.
In April, the KNA dispatched Hwang Sayong and Pang Hwajung to Mexico to assist Korean immigrants who
were being mistreated as virtual slaves. Some 1,031 Koreans went there under a four-year labor contract in
1905, and as their contract ended in 1909, many of them faced difficulties in freeing themselves from their
employers. The Koreans in the West coast and Hawaii raised funds to help these aggrieved compatriots in
Mexico.
In June, Pak Yongman started a military school (Sonyeon Byeong Hakgyo) at Kearney, Nebraska.
1910
In February, Tongnip Jeongshi ( the Spirit of Independence), written by Syngman Rhee, was published in
Los Angeles. The manuscript was written while Rhee was serving prison term in Korea and his friend, Pak
Yongman, smuggled it out for publication.
Between 1900 and 1915, a total of 8,047 Koreans arrived in Hawaii, and of these, about 1,000 returned to
Korea and about 1,400 moved on to the mainland United States.
In September, Syngman Rhee, having earned BA (George Washington), MA (Harvard), and Ph.D.
(Princeton) degrees, returned to Korea to assume the position of the Korean secretary to the Seoul YMCA.
In November, the first Korean picture bride (Sarah Choi) arrived in Honolulu and married Lee Naesu. She
was the first of 951 picture brides to come from Korea.
222 Koreans entered the United States between 1906 and 1910.
1912
Pak Yongman established the Korean Youth Corps in Hastings, Nebraska. Advocating direct military
challenge to Japan, Pak set up this corps as a voluntary program offering military training.
1913
Ahn Changho founded the Young Korean Academy (Hung Sa Dang). This organization continues to this day.
1914
Pak Yongman organized the Korean Military Corps.
1919
About 150 Korean leaders in the United States, including Philip Jaisohn and Syngman Rhee, attended the
Korean Liberty Congress in Philadelphia, where Syngman Rhee read the Declaration of Independence for
Korea.
1920
Syngman Rhee moved to Shanghai, China to assume the Presidency of the Korean Provisional
Government, the hub of independence movement by overseas Koreans.
1924
The Oriental Exclusion Act was legislated in the United States Congress. With the exception of Filipinos and
Asian college students admitted to American colleges and universities, this Act would prohibit all
immigration from Asia. Immigration of Korean picture brides that continued in small numbers even after the
Japanese authorities discouraged in 1910 came to a complete halt. No Korean immigrants were allowed into
the United States after 1924 and this prohibition continued until 1952 when the McCarran-Walter Act
repealed it and replaced it with the strict nationality quota system.
1928
Pak Yongman, who moved to Vladivostock, Russia to build a military base there, was assassinated in
China. The circumstances and details of his assassination were not well known.
1936
Ahn Ik-tai (1906-1965), a Korean composer living in Philadelphia, completed his composition of the
Korean national anthem.
1940
The Korean American population in 1940 was 8,568. Between 1899 and 1910, some 7,800 Koreans were
admitted to the United States. The effect of the Exclusion Act can be clearly seen.
Selected Resources
A Century of Korean Immigration to the United States by Ilpyong J. Kim, Chapter 1 of the book,
Korean-Americans: Past, Present, and Future, Ilpyong J. Kim (Editor), Hollym International, New
Jersey (2004).
The Early Korean Immigration: An Overview, Yong-Ho Choe, Chapter 1 of the book, Koreans in
Hawai, 1903-1950, University of Hawaii Press (to be published)
The Korean Independence Movement in the United States by Han-Kyo Kim, Chapter 3 of the book,
Korean-Americans: Past, Present, and Future, Ilpyong J. Kim (Editor), Hollym International, New
Jersey (2004).
Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army, by Meirion and Susie Harries,
Random House, New York (1991).
Korea in War, Revolution and Peace: The Recollections of Horace G. Underwood, by Horace G.
Underwood (edited and annotated by Michael J. Devine), Yonsei University Press, Seoul (2001).
Philip Jaisohn: The First Korean-American - a Forgotten Hero, by Channing Liem, The Philip Jaisohn
Memorial Foundation (1984).
The Philip Jaisohn Memorial Foundation, http://www.jaisohn.org.
The Korean-American Heritage Foundation, http://www.koreanamericanheritage.com.
Koreans in America, Bong-Youn Choy, Nelson-Hall, Chicago (1979).
The Korean Frontiers in America: Immigration to Hawaii, 1896-1910, Wayne Patterson, University
of Hawaii Press, Honolulu (1988).
Korean Centennial, www.koreancenntenial.org.
Korean Passengers Arriving at Honolulu 1903-1905, by Duk Hee Lee Murabayashi, http://koreancentennial.org/passlist.pdf.
The Golden Mountain: The Autobiography of a Korean Immigrant, 1895-1960. 2nd edition, Easurk
Emsen Charr and Wayne Patterson, The Asian American Experience. University of Illinois Press,
Urbana (1996).
East to America: Korean American Life Stories, Elaine H. Kim and Eui-Young Yu, New Press
(Distributed by W.W. Norton), New York (1996).
Passages to Paradise: Early Korean Immigrant Narratives From Hawaii, Daisy Chun Rhodes, Academia
Koreana, Los Angeles (1998).
The Korean American Historical Society, www.kahs.org.
A Profile of a Prophetic Patriot: Dosan Ahn Chang-Ho , Kim, Hyung-Chan, Dosan Memorial
Foundation (1996).
The Koreans in America 1882-1974, a Chronology and Fact Book, Kim, Hyung Chan and Wayne
Patterson, Oceana Publications (1974).
Lonesome Journey, K.W. Lee, Luke Kim, Grace Kim, (to be published in 2005)
Korean American Historical Society Oral History Project, Occasional Papers, Volume 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
A Brief History of the US-Korea relations prior to 1945, http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/1623.html
The Centennial of Korea-USA Relations, http://www.dwnam.pe.kr/201centi.html