Systematics (Taxonomy)

A new species Cauchas terskella is described from south-eastern Kasakhstan. The male and female genitalia are pictured. The new species differs from all the other small-eyed Adelidae with uniformly coloured wings only in the structure of the genitalia.

The family-group names of animals (superfamily, family, subfamily, supertribe, tribe and subtribe) are regulated by the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Family names are particularly important because they are among the most
widely used of all technical animal names. Apart from using the correct family-group name according to the Code, it is also
important to use one unique universal name (with a fixed spelling) to avoid confusion. We have compiled a list of familygroup
names for Recent fishes, applied the rules of the Code and, if possible, tried to conserve the names in prevailing recent
practice. We list all of the family-group names found to date for Recent fishes (N=2625), together with their author(s) and year
of publication. This list can be used in assigning the correct family-group name to a genus or a group of genera. With this
publication we contribute to the usage of correct, universal family-group names in the classification of, and for communication
about, Recent fishes.

Echeveria munizii, a new species from the southwestern slopes of Volcán de Colima on the Colima-Jalisco border in western Mexico is described and illustrated. This species belongs to series Gibbiflorae and is most similar to E. fulgens from which it differs in having adaxially sulcate leaves with straight and hyaline margins, olive green to brownish green surface, a fewer flowered inflorescence with fewer flowers per branch, a pink / orange bicolored corolla with the inner surface pale pink to orange, the base of the carpels white, and longer pedicels. A species conservation assessment, undertaken using IUCN criteria, determines Echeveria munizii to be Critically Endangered (CR).

A new species of Catasetum has been found along the banks of the River Teles Pires, in the Southern region of the Brazilian
Amazon. In the present study it is described and illustrated, and has its conservation status discussed. The species presents
unique features and stands out among others found in the same region, and can be compared partially to C. mattosianum.

Despite the crucial ecological role of lactarioid taxa (Lactifluus, Lactarius) as common ectomycorrhiza formers in tropical African seasonal forests, their current diversity is not yet adequately assessed. During the last few years, numerous lactarioid specimens have been sampled in various ecosystems from Togo (West Africa). We generated 48 ITS sequences and aligned them against lactarioid taxa from other tropical African ecozones (Guineo-Congolean evergreen forests, Zambezian miombo). A Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic tree was inferred from a dataset of 109 sequences. The phylogenetic placement of the specimens, combined with morpho-anatomical data, supported the description of four new species from Togo within the monophyletic genus Lactifluus: within subgen. Lactifluus (L. flavellus), subgen. Russulopsis (L. longibasidius and L. pectinatus), and subgen. Edules (L. melleus). This demonstrates that the current species richness of the genus is considerably higher than hitherto estimated for African species and, in addition, a need to redefine the subgenera and sections within it.

Pocapharaptinus gen. nov. and eight new species, P. müllerae sp. nov., P. harrisoni sp. nov., P. akotsenorum sp. nov., P.
capensis sp. nov., P. soutpanensis sp. nov., P. lachnos sp. nov., P. aboakyer sp. nov., and P. acanthus sp. nov. are
described from South Africa. The genus is distinguished by the pronotal surface being densely covered with flocculent,
wooly, tan colored setae obscuring the cuticular surface except anteriomedially, where the bare cuticle is variably
triangular in shape. All species are illustrated, described, diagnosed and an identification key provided. The
biogeography and relationships of this genus to other Ptinidae are also discussed.

The different manifestations of equivalence and similarity in structure throughout evolution suggest a continuous and hierarchical process that starts out with the origin of a morphological novelty, unit, or homologue. Once a morphological unit has originated, its properties change subsequently into variants that differ, in magnitude, from the original properties found in the common ancestor. We will look into the nature of morphological units and their degrees of modification, which will provide the starting point for restructuring the concept of “homology,” keeping the use of homology as the identity of an anatomical part, and homogeny, as the specific variation of that anatomical part during evolution. We will also show that parallelism has a distinct placement within an evolutionary continuum between homology and homoplasy, whereas the phenomenon of evolutionary convergence is left outside this continuum. We will then provide some epistemological and developmental criteria to justify these distinctions, showing that there is a direct relation between the nature of these concepts and the constraints that developmental mechanisms impose on evolution. Finally, we will propose a hierarchical model that places homology, homogeny, homoplasy, and parallelism, as distinct phenomena within an evolutionary continuum.

Annulatascus nilensis sp. nov., from freshwater habitats in Egypt, is described, illustrated and compared to other species in the genus. Phylogenetic analyses of its LSU rDNA sequence with similar fungi placed the new species in the genus Annulatascus (Annulatascaceae, Sordariomycetidae incertae sedis). Annulatascus nilensis is characterized by immersed ascomata with an ascomatal neck oriented horizontally to the substrate surface, asci with a long, narrow stalk and massive bipartite apical ring, and 5–11-septate, hyaline ascospores surrounded by a large irregular, granular sheath that is not seen in water.

A new troglobitic species of the amphipod family Artesiidae Holsinger, 1980 is described from a cave in the municipality of Santa Maria da Vitória, in the Brazilian state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil. Spelaeogammarus titan sp. nov. differs from the others in the genus by its body length, rising up to 18.3 mm, the antenna 1 with accessory flagellum 6-articulate, propodus of the first gnathopod 1.8 X longer than basis, the largest in the genus, coxa 5 with posterior lobe slightly concave, inner ramus of pleopods with 10 to 13 setae, outer ramus of uropod 3 with 22 simple setae, and telson with 1 apical plus 3 subapical stout setae in each lobe. With this study, the knowledge of Spelaeogammarus is improved to 5 species, all of them exclusive to caves in the northeastern Brazilian state of Bahia. A comparative table with the diagnostic characters of the species of Spelaeogammarus is provided.

A new species of the amphipod family Ampithoidae Stebbing, 1899 is described from the northeastern Brazilian waters. The new described taxon is grouped in the genus Cymadusa Savigny, 1816, since it presents all the diagnostic characteristics of the genus. The examined material was collected by scuba diving in the Rocas Atoll, off Rio Grande do Norte state coast, Camamu Bay and Todos os Santos Bay, Bahia state. The new species described here is close to C. filosa Savigny, 1816, type species of the genus, by presenting anterior margin of gnathopod 1 poorly setose, male gnathopod 2 densely setose,
with palmar corner not defined by a spine and dactylus subequal in length to palm, being considered part of the C. filosa complex. Among the species of this complex, the one which most resembles to the new taxon is C. imbroglio Rabindranath, 1972, which is distinguished by the absence of both the trapezoid process in the palm and spine at the palmar corner in the gnathopod 2. This is the second species of the genus Cymadusa recorded from Brazilian waters.

Habitat fragmentation reduces the extent and connectivity of suitable habitats, and can lead to changes in population genetic structure. Limited gene flow among isolated demes can result in increased genetic divergence among populations, and decreased genetic diversity within demes. We assessed patterns of genetic variation in the Caribbean boa Chilabothrus monensis (Epicrates monensis) using two mitochondrial and seven nuclear markers, and relying on the largest number of specimens of these snakes examined to date. Two disjunct subspecies of C. monensis are recognized: the threatened C. m. monensis, endemic to Mona Island, and the rare and endangered C. m. granti, which occurs on various islands of the Puerto Rican Bank. Mitochondrial and nuclear markers revealed unambiguous genetic differences between the taxa, and coalescent species delimitation methods indicated that these snakes likely are different evolutionary lineages, which we recognize at the species level, C. monensis and C. granti. All examined loci in C. monensis (sensu stricto) are monomorphic, which may indicate a recent bottleneck event. Each population of C. granti exclusively contains private mtDNA haplotypes, but five of the seven nuclear genes assayed are monomorphic, and nucleotide diversity is low in the two remaining markers. The faster pace of evolution of mtDNA possibly reflects the present-day isolation of populations of C. granti, whereas the slower substitution rate of nuDNA may instead mirror the relatively recent episodes of connectivity among the populations facilitated by the lower sea level during the Pleistocene. The small degree of overall genetic variation in C. granti suggest that demes of this snake could be managed as a single unit, a practice that would significantly increase their effective population size.

This study investigates the taxonomy of an Australo-Papuan species group within the colubrid snake genus Dendrelaphis, which is characterised by the combination of 13 dorsal scale rows at midbody and enlarged vertebral scales. Members of this group inhabit the southeastern Moluccas, Palau Islands, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and the northern and eastern parts of Australia. The taxonomy of this group has been reviewed several times in the past, resulting in a sequence of completely different sets of species as well as groupings into higher-order taxa. The capricious succession of taxonomic interpretations can be attributed to a lack of objectivity in most previous studies. This study attempts to clarify the taxonomy of this group by applying multivariate techniques to a set of morphological data taken from 171 museum specimens covering the entire geographic range. In addition, all extant type specimens of this species group were examined. The results provide evidence for the validity of nine species: 1) D. calligaster (Günther, 1867) which inhabits New Guinea and adjacent islands, the Solomon Islands as well as Australia (Cape York Peninsula); 2) D. gastrostictus (Boulenger, 1894) from mainland New Guinea; 3) D. keiensis (Mertens, 1926) from the Moluccan islands of Babar, Timor-Laut, and Kei-Dulah; 4) D. lineolatus (Jaquinot & Guichenot, 1853) from mainland New Guinea and several adjacent islands; 5) D. lorentzii (van Lidth de Jeude, 1911) from mainland New Guinea, Normanby Island, and Salawati Island; 6) D. macrops (Günther, 1877) from mainland New Guinea, Daru Island, Numfoor Island, and Duke of York Island; 7) D. papuensis Boulenger, 1895 from the Trobriand Islands; 8) D. punctulatus (Gray, 1826) from northern and eastern Australia as well as several of the Torres Strait Islands; and 9) D. striolatus (Peters, 1867) from the Palau Islands. The presented taxonomy entails revalidating D. keiensis, D. lineolatus, and D. macrops, synonymysing D. salomonis with D. calligaster, and elevating to specific status D. punctulatus striolatus. Neotypes are designated for Dendrophis punctulatus var. atrostriata Meyer, 1874 and Dendrophis punctulatus var. fasciata Meyer, 1874, which are considered synonyms of D. lineolatus.

Fungus-farming (attine) ant agriculture is made up of five known agricultural systems characterized by remarkable symbiont fi- delity in which five phylogenetic groups of ants faithfully cultivate five phylogenetic groups of fungi. Here we describe the first case of a lower- attine ant cultivating a higher-attine fungus based on our discovery of a Brazilian population of the relictual fungus-farming ant Aptero- stigma megacephala, known previously from four stray specimens from Peru and Colombia. We find that A. megacephala is the sole sur- viving representative of an ancient lineage that diverged ∼39 million years ago, very early in the ∼55-million-year evolution of fungus- farming ants. Contrary to all previously known patterns of ant-fungus symbiont fidelity, A. megacephala cultivates Leucoagaricus gongylo- phorus, a highly domesticated fungal cultivar that originated only 2–8 million years ago in the gardens of the highly derived and recently evolved (∼12 million years ago) leaf-cutting ants. Because no other lower fungus-farming ant is known to cultivate any of the higher- attine fungi, let alone the leaf-cutter fungus, A. megacephala may pro- vide important clues about the biological mechanisms constraining the otherwise seemingly obligate ant-fungus associations that charac- terize attine ant agriculture.