Instructional Design

This chapter reviews instructional methods (techniques, strategies, and tactics) in the literature used to promote positive affective states resulting in the acquisition of “robust” knowledge and skill develop- ment; mitigate negative affective states, which inhibit learning; enhance and maintain learner engagement to maximize opportunities for learning; and support the development of learner perseverance or grit. For purposes of our discussion, an instructional technique is a domain-independent and largely learner- independent method used in either human- or computer-based tutoring. In other words, the technique is implemented within an ITS as a method that has been shown to have positive effect on learning across training and educational domains, and across a variety of learners and learner states and traits. Instruc- tional techniques are best practices developed over time and include, but are not limited to error-sensitive feedback, mastery learning, adaptive spacing and repetition, metacognitive prompting, and faded worked examples. Generalized instructional techniques are discussed later in this chapter.

Children construct meaning through their play spaces not only by employing the cultural representations of toys, games, video programming, or other forms of transmedia storytelling, but by becoming active participants in the process of play. Media use is ubiquitous in early childhood, and when used within developmentally appropriate frameworks, can effectively promote learning and development for young children. This has been demonstrated extensively through television and games research. As new technologies have evolved that allow television audiences to move into the role of active physical participant, researchers and product developers are interested in the ways children demonstrate learning through their experiences with these newer technologies. This research began as an exploratory study to identify themes and connections between bidirectional television viewing and children’s meaning-making through participation with an episode of Kinect Sesame Street TV.
The introductory analysis provided the data to investigate more deeply around questions that probe the nature of social mediation through joint media engagement, as parents and caregivers engaged with the child participant during the episode. A study postmortem also provides a detailed reflection on the design process and interaction outcomes of playfully situated assessment activities, applying the implications of the outcomes to not just media evaluation research, but to assessment development for early learners.
The study of participant experiences in this research, including the analysis of how participants talk about their play experiences and how designed media elements present in child narratives, researchers, developers, and educators can gain insight into design issues and potential opportunities for learning and improve the quality of interactive multimedia products that support digital literacies, content exploration, and discovery. The outcomes from this and future studies can continue to inform design, from specific recommendations on interactions to broader design for learning questions, such as how activities move a participant towards meaning-making, how activities and practices empower participants to make larger connections beyond the product, and given what we know and are continuing to learn about the ways children learn through and engage with their mediated narrative experiences, how products can serve as a catalyst for deeper engagement and creative expression.

This study explores the relationship between an Affective Instructional Design (AID), children’s attitudes toward math, and math learning. Participants included 15 kindergarten children at a university K-12 laboratory school located in East Tennessee. This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-intervention (AID)-posttest design. Data, including pretest/posttest attitude surveys, and baseline and intervention non-participant video observations of math learning and math attitudes, during 13 math lessons were coded and analyzed. As hypothesized, a significant positive correlation (r = 0.936, p = 0.000) was found between attitude and math learning. Additionally significant differences were found between the baseline (pre-intervention) mean score and the final intervention lesson for both math attitude, t(14) = -12.39, p = 0.008, and math learning, t(14) = -8.40, p = 0.002.These findings suggest AID could be one route to supporting educators in establishing quality learning environments that promote positive attitudes and meaningful learning in mathematics.

In 1934 Alexey Brodovitch, an exiled White-Russian aristocrat with no formal art training, was invited by Carmel Snow, the editor of Harper’s Bazaar, to become the magazine’s chief designer.  Given carte blanche by Snow to reinvent the magazine Brodovitch introduced elements of Russian Constructivism, German Expressionism, Bauhaus design, the art of airbrush, and the integration of typography with photography and the page. While he did not invent the use of the double page spread, he did introduce the concept that each double page spread of a magazine was a canvas waiting to be realized and that each edition of a magazine was a complete and collaborative work of art. A teacher and mentor that did not believe art could be taught in school, Alexey Brodovitch shaped and formed an entire generation of the most influential photographers and designers in America and was among those responsible for introducing European Modernist ideas and concepts into American design.

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