Petra History
The Nabatean Kingdome Petra was once the capital of the Edomians and became the Nabataean capital in the 5th century BC. Despite the numerous wars which struck the Middle East. The Nabatean people were successful in maintaining their independence from the big conquerors. I.e. The Ptolomeans, Seleukideans. Hasmonaeans and the Romans. Only in the year 106 AD did Emperor Trajan order the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom to the Imperium Romanum. In order to found the provincial Arabia. The country of origin of the nomadic tribe of the Nabatian. As they described they described themselves in their inscriptions. Themselves in their inscriptions. Is difficult to define. The Saudi-Arabia scholar Fr. Starcky pointed for the first time to the tribe of the "nabat" and "nabat'el" in the "Onomasticon" of this very region. He continued explaining his theory by saying that the Nabataeans could never have developed the control of the water, the irrigations and the terrace cuture, except in a country like Yemen, where the dam of the wonders of the world. But according to Assyrian chronicles the Nabatu tribes also turned up in the north-east of Arabia. In a new study J. T. Milik was thus searching for the original country of the Nabataeans between Kuwait and Mesopotamia. He considered. Therefore, the mention of the god of Sabu in the Nabataean inscription. According to his opinion. This country was quite mountainous and difficult to reach. After comparing the descriptions of tow Roman geographers Strabo and Claudius Ptolomaeus he assumed that the country Sabu was situated geographically on the higher plateau of the more than 2000 m high mountain Muteir which rises east-southeast of Kuwait. However Strabo (first century AD) describes the Sabaean as a "very large tribe" (Geographike, X VI, 4, 19). Sabu is the name of a tribe which occurs at the Thamudians. the Safaitians, the Nabataeans and even in modern Jordan , and not the name of a geographical area. However, in the middle Ages the names Nabat and Anbat are used by the Arabs to describe the Aramaean-speaking farmers from Mesopotamia. As a consequence. Authors like Quatremere. Doubt the Arabic origin of the Nabataeans. On the other hand. Contineau remarked that their "Onomasticon", their deities and especially their use of the article "al" all prove an Arabic origin and above all with regard to the religion major similarities with central Arabia are evident. For this reason contemporary scholars continue searching for their origin in the area between Mecca and Dedan (al-'Ula). However, researchs in the area of Arabia are still less worked out. According to Assyrian annals the Nabataeans could clearly have spread out into the north-east of Arabia; the Aramaean language was used for common communication and became the "lingua franca" in the Orient at the latest in the eighths century BC.
The Nabataeans Arrival at the Province Edom
In the sixth century BC the ravaged province Edom, which was struck by Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian deportations. Was occupied more and by the Arabic tribes. They controlled the spice trade. As they had to pay king Kambyses (530-522 BC) a tribute of thousand talents of incense (approximately 27 tons of it). Orotalt (Ruda), who was equivalent to Merkur, and Alilat-Urania or the divine Allat (according Herodot, III, 10) were regarded as their gods. Tow Arabic nomadic tribes related to the Nabataeans, i.e. Quedar and and Salamu. Were living in the south of Palestine (as recorded in the "Book of the Songs" by Abu al-Faraj al Isfahani). In the same text is descriptin of the caravans loaded with perfumes and how turned up from the desert (III.6). Anyway it seems that the Nabataeans entering into the provinces of Edom and south Palestine took place Quite took place quite peacefully since no signs of forcible destructions during the days of the Persians were found in the centre of Petra Jordan in the course of excavations in Umm al-Biyare nor in Tawilan in the north-east nor Buseira in the north. On the contrary, the British School of Archaeology noticed a continuity in the technique of ceramic during their excavations in Buseira. Even more, the holy shrine in Khirbet Tannour in Wadi Hesa remained to the Edomian god Qos. When Alexander the Great occupied the Harbour of Gaza he found large amounts of myrrh and essences of incense: he sent 500 talents of myrrh to his tutor Leonidas in memory of all the hopes he gave him in his childhood: it seems that indeed once during a sacrifice session Leonidas said to Alexander When seeing his hands full of incense ready to burn the following: "Alexander, as soon as you conquer the country which produces of such spices, you can use the essences up in this way but now you have to use them sparingly". (Plutarch. Vies. Ix. 25. 6-7). There is on doubt that Arabia's wealth was extremely demanded by the Greeks as well as by the Romans. Consequently Alexander's generals put up bloody fights to gain possession of the orient.
The Nabataeans and the Diadochians (312-64 BC)
After the death of his empire was at risk due to the power struggles among his strategists. Antigonos Monophtalmos. A general however believed in the reestablishment of former unity. After he had occupied Asia without any difficulties he thought that the Arabs would not oppose his supremacy and consequently in 312 BC he planned a campaign against the Nabataeans headed by his friend Athenaios. The particulars of this operation are unclear. Did Antogions try to cut off the connections between the Seleukids from Egypt because he expected a campaing? In this case the Palestinian coast could have greaty simplified his intentions. Actually, the prod Bedouins were the only ones who had neither obeyed Alexander nor the last rulers from Syria. Knowing to intimidate the Bedouins and ordered his general to attack these "barbarians" by surprise and to loot their cattle and wealth. At the beginning. Athenaions was successful in attacked the town with 4000 soldiers and 600 cavalrymen in a time when most of the men went to a market-place in the neighborhood. He took 500 talents of coins and a lot of myrrh and incense; then he hurried to return after he had killed many inhabitants. After walking about 37 km he pitched his camp for the night. But the Nabataeans. Who were informed about them in their sleep and slaughtered them mercilessly. Only 50 horsemen could escape, marked by their wounds. From Sicilia (first century BC) mentioned Hieronymus from Kardia. the Greek historian who worked for Antigonos and participated in his campaigns against the Nabataeans. as eyewitness. He left a detailed description of the Nabataeans and how they still lived as nomads in their "Petra Jordan" (rock):"It is a frightening stronghold with only one access path through which only one man fits with out his arms. there they keep all their treasures." This "Petra" is the mountain Umm el-Biyara whice rises south – west of the city centre . there on its extensive top C. M. Benetts excavations uncovered the first foundation wails of an Edomian settlement (8th till 7th century BC). one should not mix up this massif with the Biblican Sela where the Judaean King Amasias let plunge 10.000 Edomain prisoners into death (II kings. VIII. 20 -22) According to Starckys detailed investigations that castle is to be found in the north of Buseira below the village of Sela.
After the Nabataeans hed punished theseinsidious aggressors they wrote a letter in "Syrian" (Aramaean) letters to antigonos. In order to appease them the Diadochian Antigonos responded to them that they were right in defending themselves and that Athenaios had acted at his own risk. In the meanwhile he had already prepared the second campaign headed by his son Demetrios. the later Poliorketes. He allocatedhim 4000 soldiers and 4000 cavalrymen. But the Nabataeans had not been taken in: they sent their reconnaissance Patrol into the mountains. their flock into the desert and hid their treasure in the castle in the rocks while the enemies were approaching. When Demetrios entered this city he found it empty and occupied the castle Umm el-Biyara in vain since the Nabataeans were well stocked with water and food. A wise man finally convinced him to be content with gifts and hostages and to withdraw .On his way back he saw that the asphalt lake (the dead sea) also contained large amounts of bitumen which was exported to Egypt by the Nabataeans.
Consequently he decided to pocket this profit himself and appointed the historian Hieronymus from Cardia as caretaker of the Dead Sea. The Nabataeans ,however , did not accept this and attacked the Greek fleet with 6000 warriors and destroyed it Finally Alexander drew a lesson from this event whereupon they did not venture to enter these areas of the proud desert Arabs and the "rock" as a consequence fell into oblivion again . Only in the 3rd century BC under the rule of the Ptolomaeans did the Nabataeans appear again in the Middle East. This is said in Zenon`s reports which were found in Fayoum . This Greek inhabitant from Kaunos in Asia was Apollonios` manger. Who himself was Ptolemaios II Philadelphos` minister of finance. He did inspection trips to Palestine and Trans – Jordan and kept up relations with the Tobiadians from tyros (Araq el-Emir. to the west of Amman). In 259BC Zenon supplied a Nabataean from Hauran, Rabilos, with rice. His substitutes also settled barters with the Nabataeans in the Negev .A Nabataean inscription of the 3rd century BC written by Aretas. one of the first Nabataean King. was found in Khalassa. More detailed information about the 2nd century can be found in the book of the Maccabaeans at Diodor from Sicilia (first century AD).
The Nabataeans and Hasmonaeans
At the end of the 3rd century BC the Seleukids from Antioch tried to reconquer Syria and Palestine because they considered these areas as Alexander`s entitled heritage for them. between 219 and 217 BC Antiochos II the Great invaded Palestine and Trans – Jordan on the Phonician coast. After Pella`s return to the east – bank at the Jordan river" the inhabitants os the neighboring Arabia assembled around him, with everyone in agreement " (Polybios. History. V. 71). These Arabs were mostly of Nabataean origin who settled from Petra to the south of Damascus. Diodor from Sicilia ( "Library" III,42 . 4-5 ) mentioned them on the coasts of the Red Sea and how they attacked the Ptolomaean fleet in the second century probably to resist serious trade competition .
After the final conquest of Palestine by Antiochos III in 198 BC. the senior priest Simon II. Followed by many Jews. adopted the interest representation of the Seleukide .After the conqueror was "warmly welcomed" he permitted the Jews to live their fathers` life and generously donated for their temple. as a result of this generous step a pro – Seleukid party was founded in Palestine. But the pro-Ptolemean opposition party was still active. especially after a dowry contract between antiochos II and ptolomaios v was signed as follows: the king of syria gave his daughter kleopetra I syra ptolemaios V epiphanos as wife and promised them the tax proceeds (antiquities, XII. 154-155). This contract, however, was not kept to for a long time and competition between these two contrary parties lasted till antiochos IV epiphanos (175-164 BC) seized power. The new Syrian ruler was a fanatic supporter of the zeus-olympios cult. He forced this cult upon most Hellenistic cities in his kingdom as well as the temple of Jerusalem with the name of baal Shamin. Priest mettathias and hissons supported by pious conservatives, revolted (167 BC). At the same time there was a proseleukid party headed by the senior priest Jason and the tobiads. but the prople's turmoil forced him to flee. First of all to ammonites, probably to the tobiadsian hyrkan , and then to petra to "aretas, the arabs'tyrant" (2Maccabaeans V.8) Then he flew to Egypt. Probably because the Nabataeans did not want to risk their good relationship with their Palestinian neighbours . Everything indicates that the Arabs shook hands with Judas Maccabaeans in a friendly way when he came to his persecuted fellow believers` and in Hauran (163 BC ) . But 100 BC under Aratas II this friendship broke up again whan the Jews` leader . Alexander Innaeus . strarted a hostile policy against the Nabataeans . He occupied their export harbour . Gaza . The city asked Aratas II for help . but it was too late . As aresult in 93 BC his son Obodas I beat the Hasmonaean in Gadara in the Gaulanitis and retook his possessions . He also beat off the attack of the Seleukidian . Antiochos XII . who himself was Killed in this battle . But shortly afterwards Obodas died (85 BC ) and was buried in Oboda ( todays Avdat in the Negev ) Artas III Philhellenus . called the Friend of the Greeks . came after him (85-62 BC ) after A ntiochos XII`s death the Seleukidian empire weakened . In order to protect them selves from the power –hungry Ituraeans of Antilibanon . Damscus` inhabitants turned to Aratas III and asked him to rule their city too . He stayed there from 84till72 and minted a coin with the Greek inscription " King aretas Philhellenus " when his protraiton one side and a Victoria on the other . following the pattern of the Seleukidian coins . When the Armenian King Tigranes turned up . Aretas had to leave Damascus . But in return for it he redeclared war on Alexandar Jannaeas . whom he beat in Adida at lodd in 82 BC . The war ended . however . with the Nabataean King `s defeat . who lost in this battle the Mediterrenean ports and 12 cities in Moab and Negev . After Jannaeus death his son Hyrkan succeeded . Working as minister he employed the Idumaean Antipater . who had married an aristocratic Nabataean woman . He made the Nabataean King from an alliance with Kyrkan against his brother Astrobulos . Aretas indeed destroved A strobulos ` army . who himself after that sought refuge in Jerusalem . Than the Nabataean King started to besiege the holy city (65 BC). But the roman general pompejus, who in the meanwhile captured Damascus, forced Aretas III to stop his siege by sending hisgeneral ameilius scaurus against him.
Petra and the Syrian province
It was very important for pompejus to look after Rome's interests in the orient. Consequently he founded the Syrian province on the decayed seleukidian empire and entrusted his general scaurus with it. He ordered him to annex Nabataea. Scaurus however did not succeed in capturing the "rock". Which led him to devastate the area and leave it with a loot of 300 talents of silver. In his vanity he minted a coin with aretas' portrait kneeling beside his camel and begging for peace for his supposed victory. When syria's governors finally realized that they could not capture this Nabataean place forcibly they thought of an alternative strategy which should give them lucrative profits. With this intention gabinius attacked malichus I in 55 BC. At that time the Nabataeans were still Rome's allies when in 47 BC malichus sent his cavalries to caesar's aid who was in bad trouble with Alexandria. But this kind gesture nevertheless did not prevent malichus from siding with thje parthians who were against Rome: and this betrayal was to be paid with a high fine by the king. The inexhaustible treasury of this caravan city were then to serve to fill the roman governors' cash boxes. When antonius felt drawn towards Cleopatra of eygpt he separated the nabataean kingdom from ammonitis and imposed a tribute of 200 talents in cleopatra's favour. But malichus was by no means willing to pay this unjust tribute. Antonius therefore ordered herodes the great to punish thenabataeans, upon which in 31 BC herodes in one go smashed malichus' army at Philadelphia (Amman). At the same time Cleopatra, however, perfidiously ordered to destroy the victor and herodes the great had to watch how his army was destroyed by the roman general. Fortunately octavious put an end to Cleopatra and antonius' ambitions upon which both committed suicide (30 BC). The Nabataeans themselves took revenge while setting fire to the Egyptian queen's fleet in the gulf of suez.
Under Roman Control
Augustus, who took over Rome, also desired the treasury of Arabia felix. The example of Alexander and his teacher shows that the greeks and romans consumed incense, myrrh, and spices exessivly. The emperor decided to send an expedition of 10,000 men, among them 1000 nabataeans, under the order of the Egyptian governor aelius gallus. The Nabataeans king obodas III (28-29 BC) provided this army a commanderi.e. his minister called Syllaeus. Syllaeus was described by flavius josephus (antiquities, XVI. 220. 6) as a handsome, intelligent young man. Obodas III on the other hand was a careless idler. As herodes the great did not have any successors, syllaeus introduced himself to herodes as the kingdom's minister of finance and aked him to give him his sister, Salome. As wife. A love affair between him and the young lady started: but when she asked him to convert to the Jewish faith he refused categorically, explaining that his people would have killed him at once. In spite of his broken love, he was not prevented from plotting his rise to power. His dream was, of course, to possess Arabia and its wealth and he was not interested in getting Rome into the spice trade's power. Strabo, therefore, who obtained his information from a friend of his, accused him of betrayal by saying: "he did not show the fleet at sea. Nor the army by land. The safest way" (Geographica, XVI, 23). The first time the Roman army. Hand indeed, lost half of its galleys at the coral reefs in the Red Sea. Gallus then built smaller boats and Kome, the Nabataean port at the east coast (later identified as Ainunah at the Saudi Arabian coast). He advanced to Marib, the capital of the meantime. However, the army was shaken by illness and exhaustion and hand to return without reaching their destination. Nevertheless. Augustus succeeded in diverting the spice trade in Rome's favour: the ships transported the goods to the ports of Myos Hormos (near el-Quseir on the Egyption coast). Form there they crossed the desert reaching Koptos on the Nile. , and continued on till they reached Alexandria downstream. Thus, thecaravan trades which were controlled by the Nabataeans become useless. This Roman interference hit the Nabataean prosperity hard. When Aretas Iv (9 Bc -40 AD). Obodas III's nephew and successor. Came into power he did not face favourable conditions. The ambitious Syllaeus . however ,ended up in Rome. Hhere he was accused of many crimes and sentenced to death. The Nabataean civilization recovered under Aretas IV: he extended his influence from Hegra to Dumat in Sudia Arabia and from Negev to the Hauran. In Damascus he was represented by a governor eho controlled the Nabataean colony there. As paul's letter to the Corinthians reports: there the apostle described his escape from the city wall in a basket (II Corinthians 12:31). The Nabataean architecture prosperd: 20 tombs in Hegra date to the time of Aretas IV, between the years 1 BC and 35/36 AD. The "Temenos" of Qasr el-Bint in Petra was decorated with his statue and the temple of the "Winged Lions" on the northern side of Wadi Musa was built in this time. Aretas IV kept good diplomatic reations with his neighbours in Palestine where his son-in-law. Herodes Antipas. Son of the great Herodes, was ruling. His son had married Aretas' daughter, but then wanted to divorce his Nabataean wife. In order to marry his nice and sister-in-law, Herodias. Aretas' daughter received what was entitled to her and got back her father's lands and Machaerus that Herodes hand first possessed. This was the exact location of the celebration that cost John the Baptist his life. To avenge his daughter's honour. Aretas destroyed Herodes Antipas' army in 37 AD. Tiberius consequently ordered his delegate in Syria. Vitellius, to present this Nabataean man to him "dead or alive". The emperor's premature death saved Vitellius from carrying out this dangerous order. Till now we do not know enough about Malichus II's power (40-70 AD) other than the fact that he provided Vespasian a contingent to combat the Jew's revolt in 69 AD. After his death his wife. Shaqilat took over power for a short time till his son. Rabel II. (71-106 AD) was of age. Rabel II was the last Nabataean king to let himself be called someone "who brought his people lift and salvation". He chose Bosra in Hauran as his second capital. Probably because of economical considerations. The luxuriant Hauran plains could replace the profits of the spice trade which they had lost to the Romans. Bosra is also situated on an important central Arabian caravan route which runs through Wadi Sirhan and the oasis of al-Azraq. Additionally the caravan city, Palmyra started to attract the trade of Mesopotamia and the Paaaaaaarthian empire. The last excavation conducted by J.M. dentzer in the eastern part of the city proved that the huge city gate is dated to Rabel II's reign. Further Nabataean monuments will soon be investigated by excavation teams. As in Petra , there must have been several temples. Fr. Starcky supposed that the city's main god was Are. Another name for Dhushara. In Imtam (mothana). To the east of bosra. A dedication to "Dhushara Are. Our lord's god in Wadi rum to bosra in the 23 years of Rabel" (93 AD) was found > Another inscription in Wadi Rum to the south of Petra says that the great goddess Allat was also worshipped in Bosra.
The Arabian Province
When in 106 AD Trojan prepared his war against the Parthian he ordered Palma. Syria's governor. " to subdue the area around Petra" (Doin Cassius. LXVII. 14. 5). Thus the Nabataean kingdom was annexed without fight to the new Arabian province on exactly March 22. 106. Due to its location in an agriculturally developed region. Bosra was in the middle of a very populated area which seemed to be suitable for the foundation of military installations. And it was declared the capital of this new province. But Trajan also paid homages to Petra bu giving this city the name of honour "Metropolis". A Greek inscription on the steps of the great Agora gives evidence of this name. In the years between 111 and 114 he erected the "Via Nova Trajana" which ran from the Syrian borders to the Red Sea and led through Petra. This main street followed the old street;s lane of the Nabataean caravans. In the shadow of the pax romana it revived the trade between Arabia. Syria and the Mediterranean harbours. The legions, which succeeded in getting the Nabataean empire annexed. Were the "II. Gallica" and "VI. Ferrata" with department of the "III. Cyrenalika in the wall of Petra's Siq near the betyl of Dera. In 130 AD Emperor Hadrain visited the Nabataean capital and gove it the final name "Hadriane Petra Metroplis". Which is imprinted on his coins. His visit, however. Did not lead to an architectural boom as it did in Jerash. But the province's givernor. Sextius Florentinus. Erected amonumental mausoleum to his son. Near the end of the impressive al-Hubta tombs (king's wall). Which were generally reserved for the royal family. In 125 AD another of Hadrain's administrators left his marks in Petra as pointed out in the documents founds at dead Sea(wadi Hervir). The interest that the Roman emperors of the 3rd century showed in the city proves that Petra remained highly esteemend for a long time. Thus an inscription to liber Pater . patron Saint of Septimus Severus (193 – 211 AD). Was found in the "Temenos" of Qasr el-Bint: and a Nabataean toms contains a silver coin with the emperor's portrait. as well pottery of his time. Emperor Elagabal ( 218 -222 AD ). Declared Petra as a "Roman colony". When at the end of the 3rd century he reorganized the empire. The area from Petra to Wadi mujib the Negev and a Petra to the Sinai were annexed again to the Provincial Palestine Tertia. It seems that Petra is also to be seen on the mosaic map of Madaba (in the time of Justinian. In the middle of the 6th century).
The Byzantinian Empire up to the Ottoman Epoch
The first Christians from Petra Were Persecuted by Diokletion in the beginning of the 4th century. However. Christianity was not very common at that time. Because when. In 419-422. the Syrian monk Bar Sauma turned up. He faced opposition. The inhabitants were suffering from a heavy drought and Bar Sauma performed a rain miracle which caused a mass conversion. Saint Epiphanus, who had lived in south Palestine before taking up his office as bishop from Cyprus. Dusares who was born by Virgin Shaanu in The "Idoleion" in Petra (Panarion. 11. 51. 22). Around 358. in the days of Constanin 11. Petra became the metropolis of the province Palestine Tertia. There. In 447. its bishop Jason consecrated the urn's prave making it a cathedral. Ten years later John became his successor. Theodurus, ho participated who participated in the synod of Jerusalem (536). Is also know . in 636 the battle of Yarmouk put an end to the Byzantine empire. The Ottoman caliphs set up there headquarters in Damascus during the period 661 and 750.as in Trans-Jordan. The Bedouin tribe were well-disposed towards them: they built numerous palaces and hunting castles in this area. Among them the famous Qasr Amra. Which is decorated with graceful frescos. Actually this roman frescos Served as a precaution for the connections to the holy shrines of the Hijaz As Petra was situated off the pilgrim's in it. A Greek inscription in the nameof the Metropolitan Stephanus of The Metropolition Stephanus of the year 687 (the ruling period of caliph Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan) was found in Rabbat Moab and proves that during the time of the Ottomans the government seat of Petra was transferred there. A 11th – century crusader`s report from antiochia confirms this transfer . Only with Balduin I (116) did the south of Jordan revive . when he erected the fortifications of Shobeq (Montreal ) Al-Habis and el-Wueira in Petra . On his way to Cairo. the Mamluk sultan . Baibers. Stayed in petra where his reporter made a detailed and picturesque description of this place which was rewritten by –Nuweiri . Much later. on August 22. 1812 .J . L . Burchkardt from Basel ws the first foreign visitor to Petra : he entered on the pretext that he wanted to make sacrifices for prophet Aaron . whose tomb is on the highest top of the massif . Endangered by his companion`s suspicion he could only gather a quick general impression of this ruined city .
Sultan Baibars Discovers Petra in 1276
In order to escape a plot against him . Sultan Baibars started off on a long journey which led him via the caravan streets . from Cairo to Kerak . The Arabic historian Nuweiri(1279 -1332 AD ) . left a report of this journey and detailed and picturesque description of Petra .
The Franks of Balduin I . who occupied Wadi Musa (" Li Vaux Mouse " in Old Frenc )from 114 till 116 . do not seem to recognize the ruine of the antique Petra there although Flavius Josephus had recorded that he climbed a mountainwhich overlooked Petra and was called Arken . (Antiquities .IV . 82 ). The burial place of Moses' brother is in fact on the highest top of the mountain (1300 m ) . to the south of the basin of Petra . Flavius Josephus aiso reminds us of the Aramaean name " Arken " and the Nabataean name " Reqem " ( See stele of the Babe s-Siq ) The pilgrim . Thetmar (1217) seemed to be better informed since he reports in his " Perigrinatio " .XV 10 that he passed on his right the Archim of the Metropole of the Arabs . However . he dose not seem to have investigated further . What was the matter with these Middle Age chroniclers ?
Yaqut al-Hamawi (1225 ) identified Wueira as a " citadel located in the esh – Shara mountains near Waid Musa and Jerusalem " and Sela. Another medieval citadel close to Tafileh . as a " citadel of Wadi Musa near Jerusalem ". He did not mention Petra by name . Other Arabic historians . especially Abu Shama in "the two Gardens " and Ibn el-Athir in " Al-Kamel "> mentioned the two citadels . Wueira and Sela . without any detailed description . However . the chronicler .Nuweiri (1279 – 1332 AD ) . Who refered to Sultan Baiber`s annalist . Ibn Abd ez-Zaher . left a detailed and picturesque description of Petra on the occasion of the sultan`s journey from Cairo to Kerak .
A Journey to Rescue a Throne
Here is the report in stages of this uncommon exhibition . as I could make it out from the manuscript 158 of the National Library in Paris and from the manuscript 551 or Dar al- Kutub in Cairo . Nuweiri admitted that he only prepared a summary of Ibd ez-Zaher`s detailed reports . which the modern historian must regret in view of the unigue text . The occasion of Sultan Baiber`s journey was the plot hatched against him in Kerak . Kerak was the famous feudal estate of the rival Ayyubid dynasty .Saladin`s descendants . The plotters planned to place one of the brothers of the Ayyubid King . el-Qaher (1249) . son of al – Muazzam . on the throne of Syria and Egypt . Baibers .however . who was informed by his secret service . hastily started his journey and crossed the Sinai desert via the shortest road . which was an old caravan route : "the sultan left his citadel (in Cairo ) . on Thursday ( 12th Dhul – Hijja 674H =30th may 1276) and rested in Belbeis . where he stayed till dusk. He continued his journey and went on till he reached Ras el-Ma in Wadi es-Sadir (today's Wadi Tumeilat). On midnight Saturday he left this place and rested in Kara till sunset. Then he provided himself with water enough for two days and went on his journey to Badriyyah. Then he was riding continuously without breaks – except when he stopped to feed and water his horses – tell Monday morning when he rested at the foot of the mountain Badr. Only at daybreak did he continue to the top of the mounting as the way was too tiring: there he pitched his camp at the spring. According to him it was a fertile mountain although it was not overgrown. The spring was in the west below a grotto, which had been craved out by hand in a high mountain. Ten steps to the left of the entrance". Clearly the expedition mainly traveled by night in order to avoid the day's heat and they rested at watering places. The bare mountain Badr consisted of green slate stones. A common kind of in the north of Sinai. Actually two mountains are known for their high incidence of green slate stones. Jebal Yalleq and Jebal Maghara, and the caravan road passes between them. In Jebal Maghara there is a grotto with a fesh water spring. Probably this was the place where baibars rested. Consequently the medieval name of the mountain was Badr. The orientalist Quarterem'ere considered the names Badr and Badriyyah as a mutilated from of the name Petra and gave reasons for his claim that the site also existed in the medieval memory. His
Interpretation, however, is more than questionable AS Baiber's route proves clearly that Badr is located in Sinai. At three travei stages away from Petra. Incidentally this stylistic derivation is dubious. Even Dawadari. A Mamluk author. Mentioned the route of Baadriyyah in 1250 and located it in the province of beni Hammad. Which is today to the west of Ismailia. Let us return to Nuweiris report which says: Then he left Badr and rode to Hassana where there is the only watering place. He traveled further to a spring which is known under the name Mulaiha and spent the night at the foot of a mountain called Naqb er-Rubai."
Across a Hostile Area
The description of the route. Which I followed in 1986 accompanied by Dr. David Graf of the University of Miami. Is astonishingly detailed. After he had crossed the Suez canal in Ismailia the traveler went to the desert of thi (the lapse ) which streches over 200 km and is covered by wrecks of charred military vehicles and danger signs for mines. On jebal Maghara we meet a camel and samel and some soldiers. In Hassana there was nothing that could have attracted the visitor: the village is completely rebuilt and only restaurant there had nothing but salt water so that we had to give away part of our fresh water to have tea. The continuation of the route to Hassana, leading through Wadi el-Jarafa in direction to Wadi Araba, is closed since the border between Egypt and Palestine is in that area. However, in 1906 a caravan of the Bibel school of Jerusalem crossed it up Ain Muleiha. Today's Menuha. The distance between Hassana and the last spring is about 100 km. it is highly probable that the Arabic chronicler skipped one part of his journey or that Sultan Baibars demanded that his adherents go on another forced march. Anyway, the route described by Nuweiri is correct as the road through Wadi el-Jarafa leads to the mountains of Sumer rt- Tiyyibeh in Wadi Araba. From there one reaches Naqb er-Rubai by passing through Wadi Himar or Wadi Jarret Samane. This narrow passage. Which I crossed twice, is 8 hours away from Petra's discovery after leaving this passage at the foot of the mountain Aaron is very impressive and also stuck in the mind of Biabar's chronicler: "At daybreak he started to climb up the huge mountain whose deeply carved gorges are formed of soft rocks, like stacked up sand changing shades from a reddish colour, to blue and white. He entered narrow passages through which only one horseman at a time was able to force his way while climbing up stairs. The grave of Aaron, Moses' brother, place be upon both, is to the visitor's left of the visitor as he turns in direction of Syria." This description was doubtlessly made by an eye witness due to its accuracy. Climbing up from Wadi, Araba, it led one to a pass which is cut into a rock and where our donkey could only squeeze himself through with difficulty. After passing this passage the path become a little bit broader and led over some rocky plateaus, on which the occasional tower can be found, up to the top. There one can see the remains of a large monument which could have been a caravanseray or customs post. The grave of Aaron is on our left. The shrine's guard. Who pitched his tent at the foot of the holy mountain. Welcomed us warmly. A pleasant path leads down Wadi el- Rubai to Petra. Now and then traces of a pavement and square stone bricks. Probably milestones to indicate distances. Can be found. However. The most important monuments are the boulders from which the dams above the wadi were constructed. This system of damming was very common. Especially in Wadi Sleisel, in the north of Petra and in the Negev.
The Ascent into Petra
In the Thugra pass the path is cut into the sandstone. To the right there is a large snake monument on a white pedestal of sandstone which is impossible to miss. The reptile's duty was to guard the tomb which contains several loculi (burial niches). View from the basin of Petra above is breathtaking. Behind the Nabataean temple of Qasr el-Bint the Khubtha-massif with its gigantic facades of the Urn Tomb (c. 772), the Corinthian Tomb (c. 766) and the Gradual Tomb (c. 765) raises. To the left one passes the massif of Umm el-Biyara, the Nabataeans' "rock", and climbs down passing the column of Pharaon to the tenemos of the temple, above which poses the castle el-Habis. Baibars' chronicler left us an admirable description of this fort: "Then a citadel appeared, Known by the name "al-Aswit". The sultan climbed up the citadel and looked at it with his own eyes; he considered it to be one of the most admirable and enormous of all citadels." the present remains of this Frankish fort seem to be rather disappointing because there are only the restored drawbridge and a dungeon (main tower) left. However, at the time of Baibar this tower was certainly more impressive since it connected the cut up ridges of the mountains. It is an extremely strategic observation since it certainly more impressive since it connected the cut up ridges of the mountains. It is an extremely strategic observation post for the access routes to the Nabataean capital coming from the south, the north from the Conway tower, the west from Wadi Musa and the east through the Siq. Its Arabic name el- Habis (barrier) describes its Function excellently.
The Description of the Monument in the Old Testament
After visiting the citadel, the sultan started to visit site itself. The enormous chiseled graves were considered to be houses and were considered with the Jews' departure. This tradition goes back to the Coran: when Allah talked about the necropolis of Hegra he described them as houses of the unbelieving Thamudians (Coran V, 80-84), whom he had turned "from top to bottom" (V, 74). The wall is jagged at the corners of the tombs, giving the impression of reversed stairs. The description of the "houses" of Petra is detailed and expresses the chronicler's admiration: "In the mountain there are hollows of magnificent shapes and dwellings magnificent shapes and dwellings decorated with pillars and dwellings decorated with pillars and entrance portals: the facades of the houses are decorated with pillars and entrance portals: the facades of the houses are chiseled in the sculptures, which are chiseled in the stone and contain all sorts of pictures and figures. Their dwelling houses are in dimension with today's human beings. Indoors there are vaulted halls, Facing benches. Treasure and "harems". after visiting the Hubta- Facades the sultan and his adherents probably continued to the "Khazne" (the Treasury House), the fully - sculptured monument of Petra. The finely chiseled tendril patterns and the many sculptures amazed him and made him enthusiastic. A description of the Siq, the narrow rocky gorge which leads to the "Khazne", follows: "Allah's might had created tow facing mountains which are separated by a narrow passage . Each mountain looks like a high wall in which dwelling houses are lined up to the left and right ." In fact this narrow passage was caused by a tectonic cleft . The medieval visitor talked of " lined up houses " and thus meant the tombs on both sides of the Sisq`s entrance . The report continues as follows :"The sultan left this site and continued on to Wadi el-Madarah and from there to a village called Odma . which was called by this name because it was there that Moses . son of Omran . peace be upon him . had Knocked the spring out of the stone with his stick : at the beginning blood run but when he ordered : "Turn again to water (Arabic :`od ma`)the spring turned to fresh and clear water . There the sultan pitched his camp." In this text there are clear references to the Bible : In the Book of Exodus . the Nile`s waters turned to blood when Aaron touched them with his stick (Eodus VII. 20). And futher : The order " `od ma ` " (turn again to water ) is in my opinion a derivation of the region`s ancient name : Edom . The letter "a" quickly turns to the guttural sound "ain " in the Arabic dialect . like `Ascalon for Ascalon. Such modification should not surprise us as traditions will be Kept in the Orient . Based on my convinction I asked aged people in Wadi Musa whether they Knew Wadi el-Madarah and Ain Odma . "But of course ", their answer was : the valley which covers the east of the village and which is connected to the ancient site of Tawilan is called Wadi el – madar :at the valley`s entrance there is the spring "Ain el Admal ". The caravan road from Petra leads through Wadi el-madar to the King`s Highway . the spring of Odmal is –according to the Arabic manuscript – the spring of Moses and not that one at the village`s entrance and on which a mausoleum was put .
A 500 – Km Expedition in 11days
Baibars spent the night there and continued his journey along the King`s Highway on Saturday evening the 21 Dhul- Hijja ( Jun 8. 1276 ). He reached the fortress of Shobaq on Sunday noon (25Km) . there he pitchedhis camp and received the local princes of BeniOqbah who offered him horses and camels for his army . He left Shobaq through the Hesa – valley . the ancient Zered . where he probably stayed at the spring of Wadi Laban near the Nabataean templeof Khirbet ed – Dharih and Khirbet et-Tannur . In the night of the June 10th . he reached Kerak and attacked his enemies . taking them by surprise . Thus he needed only eleven days for the trip from Cairo to Kerak . indeed a real record at that time . On Friday , June 14th as reported in the manuscript . the sultan assembled his conspirators . approximately 600 men , in front of the citadel`s gate and ordered their arrest . His companion`s spoke on behalf of the enemies . thus he showed mercy and was content . with cutting off a foot and a hand ( the left foot and te righ hand ) of eash of the six main conspirators . Baibars used the shortest caravan route possible from Egypt . Called "ed-darb el misri " (the Egyption road ). It connected Ismailia with Gaza along Jebal Maghara or through the Negev via Nessana – Birsaba- Hebron . Coming via Ain el Muleiha near Kadesh he stopped in Petra . Instead of this route the caravans also could choose two other ones leading via Aqaba to Petra . the first route starts in Suez at Wadi Sadr Hitan and leads through Nihkel where the Mamlukians had cut several basins . This was the pilgrim`s route from Mecca (darb el- Hadj ). Parallel to this route there is a second one which is easier to pass . the " darb esh – Shiwi". Which is on the map of peutinger it crosses Wadi Tuwaibeh and Taba and leads to Aqaba . Strabo mentioned this route in his "Geographika " ( 16 , 4 , 23)with respect to the expedition of Aelius Gallus . general of Emperor Augustus , who in 25 BC had tried to conquer Arabia Feli in order to gain control of the incense route from Hadramaut to Petra and Gaza . Strabo blames the failure of the undertaking on the Nabataean minister Syllaeus. "who had maliciously claimed that the overland route up to Leuke Kome was absolutely not passable for an army , whereas the caravans had used this very route between Petra and Leuke Kome continuously . without a hitch and in absolutely safety : and all that accompanied by a number of men and camble . who do not differ from the extent of a real army force by any means (16 .4 .23)".
The Travelers of the 19th Century
In August 1812 . Johann Ludwig Burckhardt from Basel got to the village el-Dji (Wadi Musa )after he had followed the King`s Highway via Kaerak and tafileh . Dressed as Indian pilgrim under the name Sheikh Ibrahim . he wanted to visit the shrines of Islam on the caravan road . On the pretext of having taken oath to make sacrifice near the tomb of Prophet Aaron he succeeded in crossing the Siq in the company of a suspicious guide . He had a quick look at the " Khazne " which he only described in exactly . However . as soon as he looked at Qasr el-Bint he could not resist investigating this monument which was only constructed of bricks . At this by saying : " Now I really recognize that you are a disbeliever who is searching for something in your ancestors ruins : but we wont let you take even the smallest " para" ( centime ) of all the treasuries hidden here . since they are in our country and belong to us ," ( Travels in Syria and the Holy Land . Londan . 1822.p.428) . Burckhardt did not insist any longer and hurried up to sacrifice his goat on the hill opposite Aaron`s tomb. Despite the hard circumstances and the short time which was given to him to visit Petra . Burckhardt concluded his report by saying :"…it is most probably that the ruins of wadi Musa are those of the ancient Petra."
The two French scientists labored and Linat came to Aqaba in 1828. following the south coast of Sinai via Suez. Abu Zeneima Paran and St. Katharina . They crossed Wadi Sabra . there hours away from the south of Petra . they left a detailed map of this carvan site . In which there was a little theatre . an acropolis and several temples . It is likely that the copper of the mines of Umm el Amad was processed here .
Thanks to their control of the desert roads . the Nabataean caravan traders could traverse Arabia in order to transport valueable metals . incense .myrrh and spices from India and silk from China . like the magi Kings once did .
Two Frenchmen in Petra : Laborde and Linant de Bellefonds Journey in 1828
In 1830 in Paris the luxury edition in folio " L Arabie petree par leon de labored et linant " was published by lean de laborede . For the first time Petra was Presented in Magnificent engravings. In1812. Burckhard, the real discoverer of Petra, could only present a fascinating report with a few illustrations. 16 years later, in 1828. the Frenchmen le'on de Maborde and Maurice Adolphe linant de Bellefonds spent several days in Petra and brought numerous drawings and copies with them. They were two exceptional personalities who got to know each other in Cairo: later the first one became famous as an archaeologist, archivist and art historian while the second one made a name for himself as a castor during the building of the Suez Canal . After an archaeological mission to the Near East in 1828, Laborde was looking for a travel companion for his journey to the Petraean Arabia via Sinai: he contacted Linant, who at that time had lived in Egypt for six years and already Knew the peninsula. They reached Aqaba quite quickly via the Suez and the vallys of Sinia. There, however they had to wait for the representives of a powerful Bedouin tribe, who promised them their escort. Finally their caravan of 18 men and 16 camels started off through Wadi Araba and got to Petra by a southern approach. All in all, this trip lasted five weeks. After investigating the entire site up to the Bab es-Siq at the gorge's entrance before the village of Wadi Musa , the two travelers started work at once and continued working for six full days. They had decided to publish their travel experiences separately one year after their return. Linant, however was afterwards too occupied by his engineering work and only left his unpublished diary and excellent illustrations, a few of which appeared among the 69 printed ones labored published. Works about Petra often contain a part of these illustrations in addition to the somewhat later engraving of David Roberts. Today's readers will especially appreciate the different angles of view of the Qasr el-Bint and the tenemos' portal as they are described in their mountainous surrouding, also the illustrations of the theatre, the "Khazne", the "Deir" (Laborde and Linant were the first ones who visited this site), some tombs and the giant archway, which once vaulted the Siq and is destroyed now, as well as one of the oldest maps, on which the site was drawn quite exactly; all this renders these places clear and realistic to the viewer. Probably because of security measures the two companions never separated from each other: thus they shared their work by outlining the same object either from varying distances or from different angles of view. The camels and persons in oriental clothes. Who brighten the pictures. Were added later by the executive art historian without regard to scale: this effect, which at that time was desirable, nowadays rather strikes us odd. Nevertheless, it does not change the almost photographic description of the designs. The originals are even more informative, in particularly with respect to architectural details. This adventure was not as safe as it seemed: a plague epidemic, which struck the area of Wadi Musa, forced the travelers to set out on their return journey earlier then intended. That is why their work, which was performed in such a short time, is all the more admired. Apart from Laborde's contribution to develop historical work and his summarized description of the monuments, the actual documentary value of this work – archaeological as well as artistic – lies in the graphic description which must be attributed to someone else.
Petra Obelisk Tomb & Bab Il Siq Triclinium
The Obelisks Tomb
At first impression it seems to be a unique monument, but in reality it is a compound of 2 distinct tombs, one dug above the other, in different times: the Tomb of the Obelisks on the top and below the Triclinium. The monument is improperly called “Obelisk Tomb”: the pharaonic obelisk of the Egyptian temples differs in shape and purpose from the pyramidal stele or “nefesh”, infact these are smaller in size, and set on moulded base, usually crowded by a finial. More characteristic is the Nabatean inscription wich accompanies them to record the name of the deceased. The tallest pyramid at the extreme left is 7 metres high. Between the 2 middle nefesh, a niche is framed by pilaster and surmounted by a frieze of triglyphs and meteops. It houses the statue of a personage draped in a long mantle and standing on a pedestal, with the right arm raised to the chest in act to retain the mantle’s folds. He is most probably the “pater familias” who, instead of a plain pyramid, ordered for himself a statue in Graeco-Roman style. The funerary chamber is framed by the same architectural elements as the niche above. The loculi are carved on both sides of the chamber and a vaulted alcove in the back wall with a sunken grave. This was no doubt the burial place of the head-family. Five major burials were prepared corresponding to the four pyramids in addition to the statue. A sunken grave was added, later on, in the chamber’s floor . In the courtyard opposite the doorway, there is a basin for the water’s collection from the channel running from Ayn Braq to the drain on the left side of the Siq. It is believed that this Tomb date back to first middle of I century A.D. under Aretas IV. Some authors call those obelisks “mazeboth,” a kind of divine simulacrum posted on the Siq doorway, to evoke protection for the City.
The Triclinium,
The monument engraved under the Obelisks’ Tomb is the Triclinium: a complex architectural decoration made in three levels: The six engaged columns of the lower order with Nabataean capitals support an architrave and frieze that are crowned by a Syrian pediment . This Baroque architectural decoration is recalled on the facade of Corinthian Tomb . The interior of the triclinium is supplied with three benches for the funeral banquets, usually held after the burial and fourteen days later . There are two more in the back wall used as burials in a later period . Carved upon a rock, there is an inscription both in Nabataean and Greek language; based on this writing it is supposed that The Triclinium is to be dated in the second half of the first century AD , under Maliku II (40 – 70 AD )
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