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This article was downloaded by: [Symons, Michael] On: 15 April 2010 Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 921334272] Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 3741 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Social Semiotics Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713446841 The confection of a nation: the social invention and social construction of the Pavlova Michael Symons Online publication date: 15 April 2010 To cite this Article Symons, Michael(2010) 'The confection of a nation: the social invention and social construction of the Pavlova', Social Semiotics, 20: 2, 197 — 217 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/10350330903566004 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330903566004 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. 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Social Semiotics Vol. 20, No. 2, April 2010, 197217 RESEARCH ARTICLE The confection of a nation: the social invention and social construction of the Pavlova Michael Symons* Croydon, New South Wales, Australia Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 (Received 31 January 2009; final version received 20 October 2009) Both Australians and New Zealanders claim the Pavlova (a large meringue cake, covered in cream and fruit) as their national dish. The historical record does not settle its birthplace. On the contrary, published recipes reveal the complex process of social invention through the swapping of practical experience across both countries. The illusion of a singular creation can be explained by distinguishing a second, associated level of social construction. This applies to the more ideal processes through which cooks and eaters attached a name, meanings and myths, producing a widely-held concept that was deceptively distinct. The Pavlova evolved along with other social constructs, notably femininity and nationalism, which became ironic in tone. Typically consisting of a set of instructions (‘‘take 1/2 lb sugar’’) and an often figurative title (‘‘Pavlova’’), recipes are valuable historical sources for mapping the social invention of material items and the social construction of ideas about them. Keywords: recipes; Pavlova; social invention; social construction; ironic nationalism Introduction Australians and New Zealanders both claim as their national dish a large, creamcovered meringue cake called the Pavlova. The fruit topping of passionfruit in one country and lately kiwifruit in the other provides a minor distinguishing mark. An ownership dispute fed by journalists and politicians since the 1970s has led lexicographers, food writers and culinary historians on a recipe hunt. Commonsense seems to require that such a distinct, named entity has an original version and individual creator. The search, however, has located no singular birthplace, but something more interesting. The Pavlova is the work of innumerable people in both countries, and beyond. Advocating that cooks share knowledge through newspaper columns, the farsighted Australian cookery writer Mina Rawson recognised the ‘‘cleverness of the whole number’’ (1895, 14).1 However, the idea that the Pavlova is a collaborative confection might be hard to demonstrate to partisans  New Zealand prime minister John Key still suggested recently that Leach (2008) had settled the matter (Marks 2009). *Email: duckpress@hotmail.com ISSN 1035-0330 print/1470-1219 online # 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/10350330903566004 http://www.informaworld.com Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 198 M. Symons The approach adopted here distinguishes two levels of social creation. The first is termed social invention, referring to the swapping of practical experience. The second level, social construction, applies to the more ideal processes through which cooks and eaters attach a name, along with various meanings and myths. The Pavlova became such a vividly-held social construct that it gave the illusion of one-off creation. The processes of social invention and construction are far from independent. As we shall see, the material results not only suggested the name, but the name helped fix the recipe. Yet separate analyses explain the one-and-only ‘‘true’’ large meringue. Social construction has been a central theme of the social sciences in recent decades, and the cake also throws light on other constructs, particularly changing ideas of femininity and nationality. The Pavlova arose with industrialised food distribution to domestic kitchens; that is, during the modern era of nation-building and home-building. Named after a glamorous Russian ballerina, who seemed to epitomise femininity in the 1920s and 1930s, it became celebrated during the 1960s and 1970s, during a later stage in food industrialisation, when women were being liberated from the kitchen. Likewise, it became a national symbol when production was increasingly globalised. This made its recognition not merely nostalgic but a particular form of what will be termed ‘‘ironic nationalism’’. The collective creation of the Pavlova can be mapped with exceptional precision using recipe books and related sources. The first half of this article discovers where Pavlova recipes came from, and the second investigates their glorification and their feminine and eventual national appeal. Where do recipes come from? As written prompts for cooks, recipes have been recorded in astonishing numbers for at least 3700 years, gaining quantitative precision and becoming increasingly common during the nineteenth century (Symons 2003). Australians and New Zealanders alone published an estimated 13,000 and 3000 books of recipes, respectively, during the twentieth century. Intellectual interest in culinary history can be detected in John L. Hess and Karen Hess’s The taste of America (1977) and Jean-François Revel’s Un festin en paroles in 1979 (translated as Culture and cuisine; Revel 1982), and clearly emerged in the English journal Petit Propos Culinaires, which Alan Davidson launched in 1979 (Jaine 2003), and the Oxford Symposiums on Food and Cookery, in which Davidson was also a founding figure, from 1981. The origins of particular recipes became a characteristic concern. To give an example, the Sally Lunn teacake was believed to be named after a seller in Bath (England). However, French cooks boasted the similar Solilemne (presumably from the cake’s appearance from soleil et lune) since at least in 1815. Was the Sally Lunn borrowed as the Solilemne? Or was the English a corruption of the French name? Adding to the puzzle, the trusted English authority, Eliza Acton, provided a recipe in 1845 for ‘‘Solimemne. A rich French breakfast cake, or Sally Lunn’’ (Davidson 1999, 684). Although reaching such impasses in search after search, culinary historians presumed they just needed more evidence, rather than to generalise why this might happen. Besides, Davidson was fascinated by ‘‘the most arcane ingredients or the complex lineage of food customs, recipes and techniques’’, and eschewed ‘‘the Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Social Semiotics 199 anthropology or sociology of cookery’’ and certainly any whiff of theory (Jaine 2003). Reacting against another preoccupation with exposing recipe ‘‘plagiarism’’, sociologist Stephen Mennell argued in 1984 (although not published until 2001) that ‘‘the very idea of originality in a recipe is itself almost an invention of the bourgeois age’’ (Mennell 2004, 183). But his was an unusual intervention, because culinary history only became academically respectable in the late 1990s, initially for those with an interest in women’s roles (for example, Bower 1997; Inness 2001). This present Pavlova study (by an Australian) emerges from multifaceted recipe research, led by Professor Helen Leach (a New Zealander).2 An intense search for the origins of three-dozen cakes and biscuits presumed to have been created in Australia and New Zealand between 1890 and 1940 suggests that, with one or two possible exceptions, they are typically social inventions (Symons 2008). If a cake or biscuit had one prototype, subsequent recipes would show increasing diversity, as cooks made changes. This happened to the Peach Melba, invented by French chef Auguste Escoffier (18461935), and subsequently corrupted. Instead, cake and biscuit recipes tend to converge towards popular forms and names, with only later, deliberate variation. Anzac biscuits, Afghans, Neenish tarts, and so on emerged from a highly creative community. Cookbook collector Duncan Galletly (2005) compiled a database of 21,550 cake and biscuit names from 180 New Zealand books published before 1950. Several standards showed up (e.g. ‘‘Orange Cake’’), and yet Galletly found a total of 4604 different names. Reinforcing this evidence of considerable experimentation, virtually no recipes were directly lifted from one book to another. Leach (1997) already rejected the ‘‘myth of the heroic inventor’’ with respect to the Pavlova, but this only raised the reverse puzzle  why do some recipes succeed? No longer just some experimental or indefinite variant, they gain the stature of a meaningful item. Numerous possibilities are tasty, attractive and useful, and yet certain recipes become noted, standard, classic or authentic. The creative process is not teleological. Each cook might intend an immediate result, but not to collaborate widely on an outcome such as the Pavlova. Individuals might ‘‘vote’’ by transmitting a favourite recipe, but no official election is held or winner formally declared. So how are these standard dishes dreamed up and agreed? The idea of collaborative or social invention is not sufficient. Certain results become widely known, supported by myths. This implies social construction, centred on a name. Recipes prove to be especially handy resources for this type of social and cultural research because their typical form  a set of instructions under a heading  neatly encodes the material and ideal. The instructions (‘‘take 1/2 lb sugar’’) are closely tied to material realities, so that scholars can track responses to new products and historical movements (Leach and Inglis 2003). While some recipe titles are mundane (‘‘To boil an egg’’), others are clear markers of the ideal realm of images, memories, desires and ideologies. As a simple New Zealand example, cooks turned ‘‘German biscuits’’ into ‘‘Belgian biscuits’’ during the Great War. Prescribing the ‘‘cultural elaboration of natural substances’’, as Claude LéviStrauss puts it (1978, 470), recipes provide intricate details of both our material and our symbolic cultures. To borrow again from Lévi-Strauss, foods are not just ‘‘good to eat’’, but also ‘‘good to think’’ (1963, 89). 200 M. Symons Part 1: concocting a cake Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Modernity and mass kitchens Australia and New Zealand enjoyed a golden age of cake and biscuit baking in the first four decades of the twentieth century. This was an era of nation-building and home-building, when most women were full-time housewives. Only 27% of New Zealand women were in paid employment in 1901. They were mainly young, and 44% of them worked in domestic service, which served as a form of apprenticeship to becoming a housewife (Statistics New Zealand 2001, 110). Industry pursued the mass distribution of basic commodities. The paradigm was sugar, worked by African slaves shipped across the Atlantic, to make a former luxury widely accessible in Europe (Mintz 1985). Sugar emerged with the other basic Pavlova ingredients from the capital-intensive agriculture of late-nineteenth-century Australia and New Zealand. A key technological advance was the centrifugal cream separator, arriving in Mittagong, NSW in 1881 (Symons 2007, 103). Another Pavlova element, passionfruit, became such a speciality of growers that Australia (rather than South America) seemed like the fruit’s original habitat  just as, in the next century, Chinese gooseberries became identified with New Zealand and were renamed ‘‘kiwifruit’’. These basic materials were distributed to housewives in modern, labour-saving kitchens, whose emblematic technology was the iron stove. Gas was used in the nineteenth century, and soon electricity, although wood and coal continued to be valued. The Coronation cookery book of the Country Women’s Association of NSW still spoke of baking in a ‘‘meringue’’ oven, which meant ‘‘to make meringue at night after the dinner is over and allow to stay in the oven when fire is out, until morning, but do not forget to remove it before the fire is lighted in the early a.m.’’ (Sawyer and Moore-Sims 1937, 203 and 210). Mechanical refrigeration provided large blocks of ice to keep dairy products domestically, and homes gained electric refrigerators from the late 1920s. Mass-provisioned kitchens were equipped with a further Pavlova determinant  the hand-cranked, counter-rotating, geared egg-beater. Older books spoke of whisking egg-whites with a knife on a plate (Pearson 1889, 94). For fancier kitchens, Harriet Wicken’s Kingswood cookery book hinted that a ‘‘wire egg whisk will be found invaluable for whipping cream, Genoese pastry, &c.’’ (1898, 29). Preparing eggs for a sponge required the cook to ‘‘whisk about twenty minutes, or until it has risen well and looks white’’ (Wicken 1898, 248). Even more forbiddingly, a popular import in the colonies, Beeton’s book of household management estimated: ‘‘About 1 hour to whip the cream’’ (Beeton 1861, 752). Given such laboriousness, it is little wonder that collector Don Thornton has enthused: Without a doubt, it’s America’s greatest invention . . . The rotary crank eggbeater revolutionized cooking in America. It took the deadly drudgery out of mixing food ingredients. And that was a big mix, ranging from scrambled eggs, to cream, batters, cakes and scores of other desserts, breads and sauces. (1994, xi) The first patent was granted on 23 December 1856, and Thornton lists a further thousand in America alone. Among numerous local patents was the present author’s beloved ‘‘Swift Whip’’ made in Australia by Propert, with its ‘‘ball driver’’ patented in 1944 (Thornton 1994, 206). Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Social Semiotics 201 Mina Rawson recommended a ‘‘Patent egg-beater’’ among 11 ‘‘labour-saving machines’’ in her Antipodean cookery book and kitchen companion (1907, 6), and yet she remained of the old school: ‘‘A patent egg-beater is merely optional; for my part, I much prefer a fork’’ (Rawson 1907, 8). Nonetheless, recipe instructions moved over from predominantly ‘‘whip’’ and perhaps ‘‘whisk’’ in the 1890s to ‘‘beat’’ in the next decades. The Coronation still advised ‘‘whip with an egg whipper’’, but added ‘‘use rotary egg beater for preference’’ (Sawyer and Moore-Sims 1937, 209). The mechanical beater slashed servant drudgery, enabling a lone cook to generate clouds of snows, fluffs, flummeries, angel cakes (without yolks), sponge cakes (with) and meringues. Along with the triumph of baking powder, aeration became a commonplace of popular cooking in the early twentieth century, replicating some of the refinements of great households. Not surprisingly, the United States also enjoyed many Pavlova look-alikes (for example, ‘‘Crocker’’ 1950, 234), although often with two layers, and often named ‘‘Schaum Torte’’ (Foam Cake), which a recent Joy of cooking traces to the 1870s in Wisconsin (Rombauer, Rombauer Becker, and Becker 1999, 957). Modern housewives gained another essential, the cookery book, which served as an instruction manual for the new, mass food system. With some imported texts, and earlier local instances, they appeared in increasing numbers in the Antipodes from the 1890s. The books featured and advertised processed commodities, and, not infrequently, devoted more than half their contents to cake and biscuit baking for packed lunches, after-school snacks, afternoon teas and family and community celebrations. Early books Early on, many popular recipe books were compiled by cookery teachers, with Margaret Pearson, Harriet Wicken, Isabel Ross, Annie Bishop and Lucy Drake among those in Australia boasting of credentials from the National Training School for Cookery, South Kensington (London). Such authors generally relayed established techniques, rather than picking up local specialities. Even less responsive, carrying virtually no local creations, were domestic science textbooks and manuals of the sort aimed at newly-weds, such as the Whitcombe and Tombs Everyday series running in New Zealand from 19011966 (e.g. see Anon. c. 1908). A further genre, commercial promotions by the suppliers of foods and equipment were often uninspired recipe borrowings. When home economists in ‘‘test kitchens’’ devised recipes, these were surprisingly rarely taken up; virtually no local creations have been traced back to such sources. Part of the success of New Zealand baking powder manufacturer Edmonds’ beloved Sure to Rise cookery book, which commenced in 1904 and is still counting, has been its unusual responsiveness to recipes being used in actual kitchens. More importantly for social invention, the twentieth century brought community books. These were fund-raisers often for church charities, women’s organisations and, later, schools. Not merely relying on the canon of established cakes and biscuits, these books relayed the proud results of testing and improving. Acknowledging that they selected from a lively scene, the South Australian editors of the Kookaburra (Anon. 1911) claimed that, ‘‘though a comprehensive selection is not ensured, a very varied one is’’. Even seemingly repeated recipes had modifications, they explained, Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 202 M. Symons ‘‘and every cook knows that a very slight variation may make all the difference’’. Community books could reflect actual practice with relative accuracy, but, depending on committee work, they appeared erratically. While New Zealand committees were especially active and quickly relayed many innovations (Symons 2006a), in Australia one or two fund-raising books became ‘‘Bibles’’ in each State, were taken up by commercial publishers, and appeared year after year without much change. Contributed recipes were generally signed, not for ownership but for testimonial reasons, which is made clear by the South Australian Barossa’s subtitle, Every recipe of proved merit and signed as such by the donors (Anon. c. 1932). This became the case with recipes disseminated through the mass media, too. By the 1920s, newspapers, magazines and then radio stations invited housewives to contribute, providing even faster exchange of innovations than in community books. Broadcaster, magazine columnist and author ‘‘Aunt Daisy’’ (Maud Basham) dedicated her first book (Daisy 19331934?) to ‘‘all my Listeners, all ‘the Girls’ in the big ‘Family’’’. Explaining the title of her next, The NZ ‘‘Daisy Chain’’ cookery book (Daisy 1934), she said that the ‘‘Daisy Chain’’ was the ‘‘name (chosen by themselves), for the thousands of women who rally round ‘Aunt Daisy,’ and who supply her with innumerable recipes, simple remedies, and household hints’’. Her early responsiveness to local creativity no doubt helped her rise to fame. However, within a few years, she dropped contributors’ noms de plume, so that she seemed to be the authority (Inglis 2006). The most immediate transmission mode was hand-to-hand. Book collectors find that original owners often used blank spaces and scraps of paper to jot down recipes gleaned from friends and relatives or from radio  but even when these notes have survived, they are usually hard to date. While not contributing verifiable early Pavlova examples, these sources add snapshots of a vibrant culture of experimentation, recipe swapping and critical evaluation, as cooks took up new techniques and ingredients, listened to praise and published successes. Too many Pavlovas Discussing ‘‘the holiest of holies, the pavlova’’ in New Zealand food: And how to cook it (1991, 33), food writer David Burton declares that ‘‘unfortunately for the Ockers [Australians] there is plenty of solid evidence that New Zealand came up with a pavlova recipe much earlier’’ (1991, 67). He rested his case on the ‘‘Meringue with Fruit Filling’’ in Home cookery for New Zealand (Futter 1927?). Although without the ‘‘now-classic kiwifruit slices, it is clearly recognisable as a pavlova’’, he claims (1991, 67). It also lacks vinegar and cornflour, at least one of which came to be regarded as standard, and the top was lifted off, filled, and replaced, rather than being simply coated. It also lacked the name. While Burton is correct that generally accepted versions of the Pavlova emerged out of the wider category of large meringues, unfortunately for New Zealand honour the book he cites was a repackaging of Emily Futter’s Australian home cookery from perhaps 1924 (Futter c. 1922).3 The ‘‘Meringue with Fruit Filling’’ is one example of many such tangles. Recipes called ‘‘Large Meringues’’ can be found especially in Australia by the opening of the twentieth century, although even that is not simple. A recipe with that Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Social Semiotics 203 name appeared in Mrs Forster Rutledge’s Goulburn cookery book, which commenced its century-long reign in New South Wales in 1899, although the instructions are ambiguous about the size of the results (for example, Rutledge 1906, 156). Again not specifying size, the Coronation cookery book advised in 1937: ‘‘Large meringues may be piled one on top of the other and joined with cream, flavoured to taste (passionfruit cream and strawberry cream are delicious)’’ (Sawyer and Moore-Sims 1937, 210). Representing the profusion of similar recipes, the book also included two for ‘‘Marshmallow Cake’’, one of which was two layers of meringue. A ‘‘Meringue Gateau’’ came closer to a conventional Pavlova, and the ‘‘Meringue Cake or Fairy Pie’’ even had the passionfruit on top (Sawyer & Moore-Sims 1937, 209 and 210). These were the right forms but the wrong name; the reverse occurred, too. For example, New Zealand research (Leach 1997, 2008) has turned up ‘‘Pavlova Cakes’’, although small coffee and walnut meringues, originally contributed by Rose Rutherford to the Christchurch Weekly Press on 5 September 1928, and ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’, although of two crisp layers, contributed under the nom de plume ‘‘Festival’’ to the New Zealand Dairy Exporter annual (1929). Leading off versions with both recognisable name and form, Mrs W.H. (Laurina) Stevens contributed a ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ to the Rangiora Mother’s Union cookery book (Anon. 1933). The ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ in broadcasting dynamo Aunt Daisy’s column in the New Zealand Woman’s Weekly (8 March 1934) was contributed by ‘‘Successful Pavlova-Maker’’, who had ‘‘made the Pavlova cake for a long time . . .’’ Daisy observed that it was ‘‘very nearly a meringue cake’’ (quoted in Leach 2008, 75). The strongest representation in the 1930s was then in New Zealand community books. However, the name was still not quite right: ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ now sounds incongruous (Hillier 2002). In addition, in the 1930s, the great majority were baked in a cake tin rather than on a flat tray, which eventually became standard (Leach 2008, 86). The earliest documented Australian candidates appeared in two Red Cross, war-time, fund-raising books in 1940. Miss Elizabeth Laidlaw and Mrs B. Lee Archer submitted separate recipes for ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ to 275 choice recipes in Hamilton (Victoria) (Westacott and Lowenstern 1940, 41), and Ethel Ward included similar recipes for ‘‘Marshmallow Meringue’’ and ‘‘Pavlova’’ in The Empire cookery book from Adelaide (Wald 1940, 77 and 79). Laidlaw’s recipe does not bother to mention any topping, suggesting that the Pavlova was already well known in her circle. These are still only snatches of the story. Adjudicating a winner depends on establishing clear criteria, and the degree of variation in name and composition cannot be over-stressed. Just to take 17 recipes published specifically as ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ or ‘‘Pavlova’’ between 1935 and 1944, they called for: two egg-whites (one recipe), three (six recipes), four (nine recipes) and five (one recipe). The sugar content ranged (with higher proportions making the meringue crisper), for the fouregg versions: 1 cup (four recipes), 4 tbsp (one recipe), 8 tbsp (two recipes) and 8 oz (two recipes). The sugar quantities for the three-egg Pavlovas were 34 oz (two recipes), 78 oz (one recipe), 9 oz (one recipe), 6 level tbsp (one recipe) and 1 medium cup (one recipe). Vinegar was more popular (16 recipes) than cornflour (10 recipes). 204 M. Symons This enormous variety of practical experience helps account for claims on behalf of individual inventors. A member of the Wellington Ballet Company recalled many years later that one of the city’s chefs presented a Pavlova to dancer Anna Pavlova when she toured New Zealand in 1926 (Leach 2008, 3536). Likewise, the chef at the Esplanade Hotel in Perth, Western Australia, Herbert Sachse, told a journalist that either the hotel manager or owner gave the name to the meringue cake he developed in 1935 (Schmitt 1973). Such traditions presumably have some basis in fact, not despite but because of the collaborative process. Cooks invented the Pavlova, broadly conceived, all the time. Not only cooks were involved in the creation, for eaters also evaluated, selected and named. A discussion of the serving of the Pavlova  the platform for the feedback loop of eaters praising cooks, who rewarded eaters, and so on  precedes an explanation of the creation of a definite entity. Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Serving meringue An enduring myth was that the secret of the often-boasted ‘‘marshmallow’’ centre  highlighted in early Australian titles  was the addition of vinegar and/or cornflour (for example, Sinclair 1970, 170). Perth chef Bert Sachse added these ingredients in 1935 because: ‘‘I set out to create something that could have a crunchy top and would cut like marshmallow’’ (Schmitt 1973). However, soft centres are intrinsically the ‘‘problem of large meringues’’ (Davidson 1999, 497), because the foam composition acts as an insulator, protecting the centre from cooking. In the pre-Pavlova era, even little meringues were typically hollowed out with a teaspoon, dried further in the oven, filled with whipped cream (perhaps flavoured), and two joined and then displayed in a neat stack (for example, MacLurcan 1905, 341342). Yet Mrs MacLurcan also advised, without amplification: ‘‘the meringues may be made larger, and no filling will be then needed’’ (1905, 355), presumably because of the soft centre. The ‘‘marshmallow’’ smacks of a compromise that was later rationalised. The initial motivation was probably further streamlining of the finicky cooking of grand households. Besides, large meringues slotted into new social uses. For Eliza Acton, a conical stack of little, paired meringues afforded ‘‘a second course dish of elegant appearance, and they are equally ornamental to breakfasts or suppers of ceremony’’ (1868, 550551). That is, the meringues were displayed among a dozen or so dishes in the second tableau of the prevailing service à la française. Later, in the Antipodes, the large cake still suited relatively formal serving, since was it was sticky, creamy and falling to pieces and so required a plate and eating implement. Its lavishness could also still jostle for attention among other cakes and biscuits, Leach arguing that ‘‘a blank canvas of fifty square inches (314 cm2) of cream’’ invites decoration (2008, 68). With full-time home-makers entertaining one another, the Pavlova started out as a showpiece at women’s, relatively refined ‘‘at-home’’ afternoon teas. It then came into its own at contributory dinners of wider social groups, including family celebrations and civil occasions known by such expressions as ‘‘bring a plate’’ and ‘‘ladies, a plate’’. It was next granted pride of place at birthdays, weddings and Christmases, so that Recipes and household hints from Grocers’ United Stores placed ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ among its ‘‘Special Xmas Recipes’’ (Anon. 1948, 5). As such Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Social Semiotics 205 festivities, it was a frothy antithesis to the customary dense, dark and long-lasting fruit cake. Especially early on in New Zealand, a ‘‘Meringue Cake’’ or ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ was generally placed in the ‘‘Large Cakes’’ section of books. With the decline of formal afternoon teas, it became accepted as a dessert within the standard meal format. Aunt Daisy’s favourite cookery book allocated the ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ to ‘‘Large Cakes’’ and the separate ‘‘Pavlova’’ to ‘‘Sweets  Cold’’ (Daisy 1954, 262 and 172). In Australia, it was a dessert earlier, ranging across a ‘‘Fairy Pie’’ (Coronation cookery book; Sawyer and Moore-Sims 1937), ‘‘Tempting Tart’’ (Simpson’s baking book 1940; Anon. 1940) and ‘‘Pavlova Dessert’’ (Betty King’s cook book; King 194?). The earliest Australian appearance as simple ‘‘Pavlova’’ went under ‘‘Cold Puddings’’ (Wald 1940, 77 and 79). While war-rationing of eggs and cream cut the dish’s urban opportunities, it rebounded during the post-war consumer boom as a showy dessert even at family meals. Presumably reflecting a fashionably American acceptance of dessert cakes, ‘‘Banana Pavlova cake with fruit-salad sauce’’ was served on Monday evening in a Hobart woman’s prize-winning, week-long menu plan in 1948 (Australian Women’s Weekly cookery book; Anon. 1948?, 43). In its sheer extravagance, the Pavlova might be considered a ‘‘New Look’’ dessert, equivalent to Christian Dior’s first dress collection in 1947. This brief history of uses can be read as a feminine cake’s steady infiltration of less gendered occasions, a civilising action. Such observations shift the focus towards the Pavlova’s more symbolic roles. In parallel with the refining of preparation, cooks and users selected and reinforced a name and strong connotations. Social networks across both countries experimented with ‘‘Meringue Cake’’, ‘‘Marshmallow Meringue’’ and ‘‘Fairy Pie’’, among those already mentioned, and eventually appropriated the glamour of Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova. Part 2: constructing an identity Social construction In her book devoted to Pavlova variants in New Zealand, Leach affirms that recipes ‘‘are not created, but evolve’’. The analogy with natural evolution focuses attention, she says, on such processes as ‘‘selection acting on variation . . . and adaptation to changing environments’’ (2008, 27 and 158). The metaphor of the survival of the fittest helps, but social creation involves human deliberation. Culinary mutations have an intentional element. In particular, the process of naming becomes an important selection mechanism. It can privilege some among numerous variations. The endowing of meaning contributes further to the relative stability of favoured forms. The Pavlova is not merely a cluster of recipes and results on a plate. It is also a cluster of personal memories, public myths, treasured ideals and associated names, which together contribute to a distinct concept. In other words, by itself, the reference to constant recipe evolution fails to explain the widespread impression that there is one, real, meaningful Pavlova. Leach’s stress on the numerous contenders (the ‘‘small coffee-walnut type’’, ‘‘four-plus-four type’’, ‘‘one-egg type’’, etc.) leaves Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 206 M. Symons the reverse puzzle: why are some variants relatively fixed? The answer is social construction. The process can be outlined by reference to Plato’s idealism. The ancient philosopher extolled another reality to the extent of demoting this one to a flawed copy. His Seventh letter uses the example of the circle, challenging the reader to locate a real one (Plato 1973). Applying the same argument, the Pavlova has a name. It has a written recipe, which prescribes its composition. It can have a pictorial representation, too. Furthermore, almost every Australian and New Zealander has a strong impression of the Pavlova in their head. But neither the name, recipe, visual representation nor a person’s mental impression is the real Pavlova, which Plato therefore places in an ideal realm. On some higher level, the Pavlova remains an abstraction, only ever copied imperfectly by physical versions, which are lopsided or too browned or two-layered or with nuts. Social scientists have explained Plato’s world of forms with theories of social construction, no-one more influentially than Emile Durkheim, who provides an explicit rejoinder to the ancient philosopher’s ‘‘magnificent language’’ at the end of The elementary forms of the religious life (Durkheim 1995, 438; originally 1912). According to Durkheim (1995, 434; developed in Durkheim 1960), above the individual lies society, ‘‘a system of active forces’’, with its ‘‘conscience collective’’. This socially constructed knowledge can be metaphysically convincing. No single person created the ideal Pavlova; rather, a ‘‘system of active forces’’ did so, as numerous people experienced and communicated. The move from ‘‘Meringues’’, ‘‘Meringue Cake’’ and ‘‘Marshmallow Meringue’’ to the more rhetorical ‘‘Fairy Pie’’, ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’, ‘‘Pavlova’’ and eventually ‘‘Pav’’ left the illusion of one true, Platonic Pavlova, which gained such social facticity that people called it an ‘‘icon’’ in the 1990s. Such a distinct form could seemingly only have had one birth, and so had to belong ultimately to either Australia or New Zealand. This was the ‘‘intelligent design’’ fallacy that a describable, nameable form could not have emerged out of complex interactions. The title of Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann’s (1966) The social construction of reality might have over-sold the case, but its publication signalled the widespread appreciation of the process. Mary Douglas’s explorations of the power of cultural categories included ‘‘Deciphering a meal’’, in which she drew attention to the authority of meal structures (1972, 6769). As an illustration, Antipodeans would be unsettled to find their beloved proprietary spread, Vegemite (a black and salty product of spent brewer’s yeast), advertised as ‘‘A Food and a Drink’’. A drink? Even more disconcertingly, it was originally ‘‘Obtainable from all Chemists and Grocers’’. Chemists? Such classifications seem transgressive. Yet this is how Vegemite was advertised in the New PWMU cookery book (Anon. 1929, 88). Similarly, a dish called ‘‘Pavlova’’ disconcerts when collected under ‘‘biscuits’’ or called a ‘‘Tempting Tart’’. Given that the category of cake was consumed outside regular meals, ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ had to give way to simple ‘‘Pavlova’’ for it to become a valid dessert. The Pavlova was socially constructed in conjunction not only with ‘‘proper’’ meal structures, but also with the other social realities of nations and femininity. Social Semiotics 207 Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Modern daintiness Before the Second World War, cookery books frequently employed ‘‘dainty’’ both as adjective and noun, just as ‘‘delicacy’’ means both ‘‘fineness or intricacy of structure or texture’’ and ‘‘a choice or expensive food’’. The Coronation cookery book (Sawyer and Moore-Sims 1937) listed the proto-Pavlova, the ‘‘Fairy Pie’’, among ‘‘delectable dainties’’. Sherrie A. Inness links the emergence of dainty dishes in the United States in the early twentieth century to the ‘‘construction of femininity’’, suggesting that a ‘‘woman proved herself to be a lady by preparing dainty, genteel foods for everything from bridge gatherings to tea parties’’ (Inness 2001, 53). While Antipodean cooks might have aspired to gentility, so that some such leading figure as the governor’s wife supplied a prefatory recipe to many community books, people choose foods for more reasons than merely demonstrating social position (‘‘proved herself to be a lady’’).4 Among basic pressures towards daintiness was increasingly sophisticated food marketing, as in this earlier explanation: The great promoters of daintiness, which turned mere ‘‘feeding’’ into ‘‘dining’’, were the modern food companies. They could not make much sales progress with the rough tastes of workmen. However, they could coax housewives to adopt profitable frills. They could persuade shoppers to ask for highly-advertised embellishments like chocolate, desiccated coconut, custard powder and jelly. They could convince women to accept a new role as consumers. (Symons 2007, 160; originally 1982, 139) Appealing to daintiness, sections of the food industry used prettily-decorated cookery booklets to persuade housewives to use canisters of sugar, ovens and beaters for lady-like afternoon teas and suppers. A glorious symbol of cultured femininity in those days was the Russian ballerina, Anna Pavlova (18811931). ‘‘Leave acrobatics to others, Anna’’, an early teacher had admonished. ‘‘You must realize that your daintiness and fragility are your greatest assets’’ (quoted in Smakov 1984, 4). Pavlova toured her company widely, including to the furthest reaches of European colonisation, visiting four Australian and several New Zealand centres between March and August 1926. She returned to Australia between March and July 1929. The National Library of Australia’s collection of theatre programmes indicates a total of 18 ballets (mostly one act) and 55 divertissements, demonstrating a range of ballet styles and techniques. Her fragility was exemplified in her most famous work, ‘‘Le cygne’’, choreographed for her by Michel Fokine to the music of Camille SaintSaëns, and depicting the spirit ebbing from a dying swan. The cover of her souvenir programmes on both tours carried her photograph, framed within a wreath, wearing the swan’s feathery white costume. Her arms are crossed, her head to one side, dancing on point, with the dress lifted at the back to become circular. This image is readily associable with a fluffy, white round of meringue cake. White cakes already symbolised femininity. As the Pavlova was being created, Americans were upgrading their previous Bride’s Cake  ‘‘that ethereal structure of white tender cake all iced and decorated with snowy frosting’’  into their Wedding Cake, while relegating the traditional fruit or Black Cake to the Groom’s Cake (‘‘Crocker’’ 1950, 147). The white icing of wedding cakes had been associated with virginal purity since Queen Victoria, and, during the 1950s, Antipodeans developed the ‘‘softly feminine’’ curves possible with white ‘‘plastic’’ icing (Charsley 1992, 124 125 and 2226). 208 M. Symons The author of Anna Pavlova: Her life and art, Keith Money, is a New Zealander and so first knew the ballerina’s name through ‘‘all that shattered meringue, and thick cream, and weirdly transparent green slices of Chinese gooseberry! And a hint of passionfruit  that was the trick’’. Money’s appreciation would deepen: Only now do I understand that no chef could have struck a better balance for the subject of his homage: a delicate and fragile thing, cool yet faintly exotic in appearance. An attempt to take it apart leaves one with a disconcerting collapse of the whole. The slivers of meringue are like ice floes on the Neva . . . [the river of Pavlova’s birthplace, St Petersburg]. (Money 1982, 1) Pavlova’s feminine image was frequently appropriated, as her husband-manager Victor Dandré complained: Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Trading interests, always eagerly on the look-out for anything that a gullible public will greedily take up, made an extensive use of Pavlova’s name  ‘‘Pavlova Perfume’’, ‘‘Pavlova Powder’’, ‘‘Pavlova Fashions for the year 1925’’, high ‘‘Pavlova boots’’ in America, ‘‘Pavlova Ices’’ in London, ‘‘Pavlova Cigarettes’’. (1932, 190) And she does not appear to have gained much income from product endorsement. Her Sydney souvenir programme in 1926 contained glamorous advertisements for wine, whisky, beer, hotels, motor vehicles, cruises to Japan, women’s stocking, hair stylists, and a ‘‘Special Announcement’’ from chocolate manufacturers, Mac Robertson: By arrangement with [theatrical entrepreneurs] J.C. Williamson Ltd., Madam Pavlova will autograph the covers of the Special Pavlova Boxes of de luxe Old Gold Chocolates. Obtainable at all Sweet Stores within the vicinity of this Theatre. (Anon. 1926, 9) Presumably without permission, the Davis Gelatine company promoted a recipe for a moulded ‘‘Pavlova’’ of four coloured layers of jelly (sap green, milk, orange and cochineal). The Australian national dictionary credits the first use to a New Zealand booklet, Davis dainty dishes, in 1927 (Ramson 1988, 466). Started in that country, the Davis company nonetheless already boasted the British Empire’s largest gelatine works at Botany (Sydney), and the recipe and its watercolour picture originated in the Davis dainty dishes edition in Australia (Davis 1926). The company published its Pavlova recipe and pretty depiction in many tens of thousands of booklets and inserts. Like most commercial recipes, this failed to take off, but associated gelatine use with dainty cooking. The power of naming Successful Antipodean cake and biscuit recipes from that period exhibit striking features. The attraction might be an ingredient, so that desiccated coconut is prevalent in early examples (Lamingtons, Illusions, Khaki Cake, Kentish Cake, and more), and cornflakes became highly fashionable when launched on the local market in the late 1920s (Cornflake Meringues and Afghans). A distinct form helped, too, such as the modernistic, two-toned iced Neenish Tart. Cultural reproduction was further supported by an evocative name. Many alluded to visual effects, such as Peach Blossom Cake, Sunbeams, Peep Bos (raspberry jam showing through a crack), Slugs, Yo Yos and the white, light Illusions. Dusky colouring and spiciness were Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Social Semiotics 209 associated with West Indian Cake (also known as Red Indian Cake), Afghans and Maori Kisses. An arresting name helped, too, so that proper names replaced literal descriptions: Louise Cake remained popular in New Zealand, while Australians forgot similar recipes for Raspberry Short Cake/Slice (Symons 2008, 46). Likewise, the formulation ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ steadily replaced ‘‘Meringue Cake’’ in the ratio of 1:1.5, 1:1.2 and 1:0.7 in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s.5 Eventually, one name would prevail. Such Australian alternatives as ‘‘Large Meringue’’ and ‘‘Tempting Tart’’ dwindled until the Green and gold from South Australia used the hybrid ‘‘Marshmallow Meringue (Pavlova)’’ in the late 1950s (Anon. 1950s, 109). It is easy to imagine the process, as one person corrected another along the lines: ‘‘Fairy Pie?  no, that’s a Pavlova’’. As further evidence of strengthening identity, the early name ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ followed a common recipe form of a qualifier (‘‘Pavlova’’) of a category (‘‘cake’’). In other words, this was a particular variety of cake. Yet certain culinary items gain such familiarity that they require only a single word, becoming generic in their own right  such as brawn, kedgeree and meringue. The seventh edition of the Edmonds cookery book (around 1939) used simple ‘‘Pavlova’’, and Australians quickly settled on a single noun, perhaps in association with earlier placement in the non-cake category of cold desserts. Once the Pavlova became familiar, it could be modified to give Little Pavlovas (1946), Raspberry Pavlova (1948), and so on  although publishers were still insufficiently acquainted when they must have rendered a curly ‘‘v’’ as ‘‘Padalova’’ (Gill 1952, 75). The name was affectionately abbreviated to ‘‘Pav’’ in one or both countries by 1966 (Turner 1966, 173). The winner of even this element of the ‘‘still hotly debated’’ ownership dispute is unclear, since the witness was a New Zealander resident in Australia, as a fellow lexicographer points out (Ramson 1993, 22). By now the dish had become so familiar that Cooking with style in aid of the Wellington Free Ambulance followed the ‘‘Pavlova Cake’’ recipe with an ‘‘Afterpav Cake (To use up the egg yolks)’’ ([Marris] 1969, 80). The converging upon and then playing around with a name contributed to the Pavlova’s identity. No-one can proclaim, defend and give meaning to an ‘‘x’’ until it has a name. Furthermore, naming affects physical actions and results, most immediately because an accepted label encourages direct comparisons between recipes. The large, single-layered meringue eventually sidelined the little, biscuity Pavlova cakes of Rose Rutherford that appeared in at least six nationally circulated New Zealand books through the 1930s (Leach 2008, 61). We can imagine such other comments as ‘‘Why use six whites?  I only need three’’. Seemingly paradoxically, the proliferation of recipes only sharpened the definition, given the weight of increased popularity. Then, mass conformity released a more sophisticated experimentation that can be termed playfulness (the ‘‘Afterpav Cake’’, and so on). Success is further helped when names invite creation myths. Anzac Biscuits are widely understood to have been sent to the Anzacs (members of the combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) during the Great War. Recently this has been termed a ‘‘myth’’. Yet the account is broadly correct, even if long-keeping, rolled oats biscuits only gained ‘‘Anzac’’ in their title in 1919. Stories have circulated to explain how Lamingtons (cubes of cake coated with cocoa icing and desiccated coconut) were named after Baron Lamington, governor of Queensland (18961901).6 The title Kentish Cake (incorporating cocoa, coconut and finely chopped almonds) 210 M. Symons implies traditional use in an English county, probably fallaciously. Recipes such as the Pavlova, whose names imply creation myths, are striking examples of socially constructed or ‘‘invented traditions’’ that can seem unrealistically time-honoured (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1983). In sum, numerous domestic cooks created the Pavlova in response to plentiful raw materials, new kitchen technology, lively recipe exchange and to suit certain social occasions, often being shown off at celebrations, when a dense fruit cake could be trumped, and also in response to more purely cultural factors  notably a distinctive, evocative and intriguing tag, which assisted the dish’s shaping, standardisation and perpetuation. Commemorating an exciting Russian émigré, the Pavlova was caught up in the construction of femininity, and then burdened with an extra symbolic load when it was proclaimed a national dish  in two nations. Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 National confection A core disciplinary challenge for culinary historians is establishing links between the contents of recipe books and actual practices. Some indication that a recipe was indeed in use comes from the frequency of its book appearances, and, presumably more accurately, from the grubbiness of relevant pages. Collector Duncan Galletly recorded the creases, stains and hand-written marks in 180 early New Zealand books to provide a ‘‘use index’’ for cake and biscuit recipes (pers. comm.). He found that, for example, cooks turned frequently to American recipes for Chinese Chews, Buffalo Cake and Stuffed Monkeys (each scored 0.55 on his scale). Some local inventions were often looked up, especially Louise Cake (0.37), Lamingtons (0.34), Afghans (0.33) and Anzac Biscuits (0.31). Meringue Cake was among these (0.34), in more use than Pavlova (0.30), although this was still above the average (0.24), and the scores apply to books before 1950. During the 1950s, the Pavlova became well recognised as a favourite in both countries. A Victorian rural newspaper, The Leader, affirmed that the ‘‘pavlova tart is certainly one of the most popular of all fancy sweets’’ (Anon. mid-1950s?, 10). ‘‘In New Zealand it is the hostess’s favourite dessert (and the guest’s too)’’, Helen M. Cox explained in one of her first London cookery books (1956, 104105). During the 1960s, people on both sides of the Tasman Sea elevated this national favourite to a national creation. The Margaret Fulton cookbook observed ‘‘the famous Australian Pavlova is to be enjoyed in places as far flung as San Francisco and Hong Kong’’ (Fulton 1968, 240). Its recognition also moved beyond cookery books. The creamy concoction had been messy for shops to handle, but a food technologist at Massey University in New Zealand published papers on commercial techniques for Pavlova cake mix and frozen Pavlova cakes (Beswick 1968, 1969). The thorough Australian Women’s Weekly cookbook, selling more than 800,000 copies, devoted an entire chapter in 1970, detailing such tricks as removing the meringue cleanly from a tray. As well as the ‘‘Classic Pavlova’’ of three egg-whites and one cup of sugar, recipes included ‘‘One-Egg Pavlova’’, ‘‘Easy Two-Egg Pavlova’’, ‘‘Stored heat Pavlova’’ and ‘‘Marshmallow Pavlova’’, along with a page of ‘‘Fillings for Pavlovas’’ (Sinclair 1970, 170174). Male writers in the general media now reinforced the Pavlova’s national status. The Australian weekly magazine, The Bulletin (6 November 1971, 58), reported that the House of Pavlova in Victoria was ‘‘equipped with 32 ovens each capable of Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 Social Semiotics 211 turning out eight pavlovas a day’’, and confirmed that ‘‘in the air, Qantas [Australia’s national carrier] passengers spoon through several a day’’. Hugh Schmitt’s article on Perth chef Bert Sachse appeared in Woman’s Day in 1973. This was the era of jet travel, when numerous Australians and New Zealanders spent time in Britain and elsewhere, and confronted their national identity and associated food peculiarities, not least Vegemite and Pavlova. Visiting the Harrods food hall in London in 1971, Sydney journalist Ross Campbell came across a sign, ‘‘Pavlova Cake  20 p a slice’’, and reported in the Bulletin that ‘‘a distinctive Australian contribution to cuisine, had been officially recognized as posh’’ (Campbell 1971, 13). Yet the sign went on: ‘‘Pavlova Cake was created in New Zealand as a tribute to the dancer Anna Pavlova’’. Irritated by the mis-attribution and also the ‘‘cake’’ label, Campbell wrote to the manager, complaining that ‘‘the Pavlova  ‘Pavlova Cake’  was believed in Australia to be an indigenous creation’’, and was normally topped with passionfruit. The store’s response was ‘‘conciliatory’’, saying that they had removed the placard, but noting that sales had trebled when they switched from passionfruit to strawberries (Campbell 1971, 1314). Social commentator (and later British MP) Austin Mitchell pandered to New Zealand’s ‘‘one major preoccupation: New Zealand’’ (1972, 11) with his title The half-gallon quarter-acre Pavlova paradise (Mitchell 1972). Mitchell’s book barely mentions the Pavlova; yet the title was so resonant that a new edition and television series 30 years later was sharpened to Pavlova paradise revisited in 2002. By then, the Pavlova had been borrowed for a lexicographers’ festschrift, Of Pavlova, poetry and paradigms: Essays in honour of Harry Orsman (Bauer and Franzen 1993). The dish came to national prominence as Antipodeans abandoned their ‘‘cultural cringe’’, referring to the way intellectuals submitted to ‘‘the intimidating mass of Anglo-Saxon culture’’ (Phillips 1950). Just as the young Queen Elizabeth’s Royal Tour of 19531954 aroused pride in the British Empire, writers and artists departed for London. Nationalism arose in the 1960s as a reaction to the ‘‘Americanisation’’ of television sitcoms and the Vietnam War. Rather than the jingoism that represses internal differences, this was the less embarrassing liberation of self-expression, and remained somewhat ironic. Ironic nationalism ‘‘The soldier who falls defending his flag certainly does not believe that he has sacrificed himself to a piece of cloth’’, observes Durkheim (1995), 229). Flags embody national virtues only through a mighty suspension of disbelief. To achieve such a flagrant social construction, leaders have installed flags on buildings, in public halls and behind themselves, and led the saluting and singing, until the slightest misuse seems a desecration. Such triumphalism, faith and obedience matched the authoritarians’ will to power and will to believe. Meanwhile, on the other side of the culture wars, and speaking with equal generality, liberals relied more on empiricism, debate and theories of social construction. They also held their love for their nation at a safe distance through irony. As much as any book, Donald Horne’s The lucky country announced a new national self-consciousness, but its title was ironic: ‘‘Australia is a lucky country run mainly by second-rate people who share its luck’’ (1964, 209). Similarly, patriotic emotions were stirred by the humorous exaggeration of stock characteristics, as when Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 212 M. Symons John O’Grady adopted an immigrant persona ‘‘Nino Culotta’’ to write They’re a weird mob (1957). The new nationalism became even more noticeable with the government-supported movie industry, which paraded the cockiness of young men in such titles as Stork (1971) and The Adventures of Barry McKenzie (1972), only tempered when an earlier generation of young women showed up in Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975) and My Brilliant Career (1979) (see O’Regan 2002 for details of all four movies). Especially during its greatest public prominence in the 1960s and 1970s, the Pavlova became a gently subversive national symbol  not merely more grounded, generous and peaceful than any flag, but also more light-hearted. Recall the journalists’ mock defences, such as Campbell’s, of a sweet ‘‘officially recognized as posh’’ and proclamations, such as Mitchell’s, of a ‘‘Pavlova paradise’’. Satirist Barry Humphreys divided the world into the ‘‘Pavs and Pav-nots’’, lamenting in Dame Edna’s coffee table book: ‘‘Many young lasses couldn’t run up . . . a decent Pavlova these days’’ (quoted in Ramson 1988, 466). Even the long list of eventual Pavlova variants, such as the mini-Pavlova, one-egg, electric frypan, microwave, roll and Snax Pavlovas, hint at amused affection. This need for a more ironic national emblem can be set against a new revolution in the food supply, and the concurrent re-construction of the nation and of gender roles. Early in the century, capital had moved into food distribution on an eventually national basis, with industrial products aimed at households. By contrast to this nation-building and home-building, the post-war consumer boom globalised production and also individualised consumption. Displacing not only domestic gardens and stores, but now also home cooking, the manufactured cornucopia liberated the mass kitchen of iron stoves and sugar canisters, admitting women into the paid workforce, and men into the previously female domain. Marketing a vast range of ready-made meals, as well as fast food options outside the home, multinational food corporations further eroded national boundaries by offering simulacra of French, Italian, Middle Eastern, Indian and Chinese cuisine. As well, the food industry advertised takeaways, snacks, and drinks as providing health, style and pleasure benefits for individuals (Symons 2006b). Overall, this encouraged a distinctly postmodern mentality (for example, Symons 2009). The new nationalism could be hyper-real, as when McDonald’s flew its own logo alongside the appropriate nation’s flag, or it could employ such distancing devices as nostalgia and irony. Against the postmodern cacophony of brand-names and logos, the Pavlova recalled the earlier, housewifely stage of the industrial food supply. Contrasting markedly with the even earlier, masculine meat pies, damper and billy tea, this feminine food icon harked back to the disappearing full-time home-makers  people’s mothers and grandmothers. Trumpeting the discovery of a national dish in an increasingly global environment, both nations discovered the other, and the ensuing struggle over ownership was largely tongue-in-cheek. A food writer reported that the long ‘‘simmering’’ battle over rightful national ownership flared into a ‘‘full diplomatic row’’ in 1985 after a group in Western Samoa asked both the Australian and New Zealand High Commissioners to nominate a national dish for a fund-raising evening; ‘‘the fury resounded in the national press of both countries’’ (Burton 1991, 67). The suitability of this heart-felt creation of modern cooks to be celebrated within postmodernity was affirmed by the dish’s relative eclipse under Australia’s doggedly Social Semiotics 213 right-wing prime minister John Howard from 1996 until 2007. The sweet delicacy seemed less amusing in the flag-waving, resentful national mood, when Howard joined the ‘‘coalition of the willing’’ to invade Iraq, and when joking literally became a criminal offence.7 Meanwhile, New Zealanders still had a Labour government and they still had their larger and indifferent neighbour, so they kept up the ‘‘Pavlova wars’’. In her years of researching and lecturing on the Pavlova, Leach has accepted that ‘‘the periodic skirmishes provide an excellent opportunity for redressing the imbalances created by sports encounters, and generating a comfortable feeling of national identity’’ (2008, 29). Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 One Pavlova or two? Scholars now demystify nations as socially constructed or ‘‘imagined’’ communities, whose borders have appeared more settled and cultures more cohesive than in reality (for example, Anderson 1991). Like the Pavlova, nations have been created out of complex social, cultural and environmental interactions, and, with sufficient flagwaving, have acquired a deceptive conventionality. The force of political will can make Australians and New Zealanders think their nations are distinct, and forget that they share much more than colonial origins, the Anzac legend and virtually indistinguishable flags. They have eaten much the same, and their most commonly proclaimed national dishes, differentiated by fruit topping, epitomise a history of recipe swapping. A Sydney reader contributed a ‘‘Meringue Cake’’ to the Ideal fundraiser in Wellington in 1929, while a cook called ‘‘Rewa’’ of Rongotai, New Zealand, contributed a ‘‘Meringue Cake’’ to the Australian Woman’s Mirror on 2 April 1935. The speed of this exchange provides a rough measure of culinary and thus cultural cohesion. A comparison of earliest known versions of three dozen cakes and biscuits shows migration can be fast (within a year or two), although admittedly sometimes slower. Oddly, recipe migration appears to have been faster from the relative periphery (New Zealand) to the relative centre (Australia). Travellers would presumably have carried recipe finds at equivalent speeds both ways across the Tasman. However, while magazines tended to be distributed from the larger to the smaller country, their recipes often moved against that flow. For example, one in seven readers’ recipes published in the Australian Woman’s Mirror in the 1930s was sent from New Zealand. The thorough exchange of Pavlova recipes raises questions of whether the two nations’ cuisines could ever be satisfactorily studied separately. Moreover, the Pavlova might seem trivial, a sweet puff of wind  yet it could also be a powerful unifying force. Its collective creation suggests that these two nations are more like one. Acknowledgements Thanks to Helen Leach and other members of the team, along with Duncan Galletly, Marion Maddox and this journal’s anonymous reviewers. Notes 1. Cookery books are presented chronologically after the references. 214 M. Symons Downloaded By: [Symons, Michael] At: 16:27 15 April 2010 2. The use of cookery books as social and culinary indicators (particularly, in my case, of the shift from modernity to postmodernity) was supported by the Marsden Fund of the Royal Society of New Zealand from 2005 until 2008. 3. The National Library of Australia dates the book as 1924?; it contains a testimonial from opera singer Nellie Melba, dated 15 August 1922. 4. The corollary would be that other women chose nasty or just plain food to show off their inferiority. 5. Duncan Galletly, personal communication. Helen Leach provides another set of ratios restricted to her ‘‘type IIIA’’ recipes, closest to the conventional Pavlova: 1:2.25 (1930s), 1:0.86 (1940s), and 1:0.22 (1950s). 6. Lady Lamington’s unpublished memoirs credit their French chef Armand Galland for devising them for unexpected guests in either Toowoomba or Brisbane between April 1900 and June 1901 (Dr Katie McConnel, Curator, Old Government House, Brisbane, personal communication). 7. Signs throughout Sydney airport stated: ‘‘Joking about aviation safety and security is . . . taken seriously and may lead to;/Being denied the right to fly; or/Criminal Prosecution/ Let’s Keep Sydney Airport SafeSecure’’ (author’s photograph, Monday 5 January 2007). Notes on contributors Michael Symons has been a journalist and restaurateur, instigated the Symposiums of Australian Gastronomy in 1984, and gained a PhD in the ‘‘sociology of cuisine’’ in 1991. He is the author of One continuous picnic: A history of eating in Australia (1982, Duck Press and 2007, Melbourne University Press), The shared table: Ideas for Australian cuisine (1993, AGPS) and The pudding that took a thousand cooks (1998, Viking; republished in 2000 as A history of cooks and cooking, University of Illinois Press). References Anderson, B. 1991. Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. rev. ed. London: Verso. (Orig. pub. 1983.) Anon. 1926. 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