Textbook of limnology

Introduction : Definitions of limnology ; Facets of limnology : Geology ; Physics and mathematics ; Chemistry ; Biology ; Historic and personal facets. An overview: Rawson’s diagram

A limnologic perspective : Lakes : Birth and death of lakes ; Lake regions ; Lake typology ; Sediments and lake typology ; Paleolimnology. The aquatic ecosystem : The littoral community ; The plankton community ; The benthic community ; The detritus community ; The nekton community

The freshwater biota, habitats, and communities : Physical factors ; Chemical factors ; Adaptations to fresh water ; Opportunities in freshwater systematics and taxonomy ; The monera: prokaryota : The cyanobacteria. The eukaryota : The plants ; The animals. The plankton community : The phytoplankton ; The zooplankton. The benthic and littoral communities : The phytobenthos—littoral plants ; The zoobenthos. The detritus community : Dissolved organic material ; Particulate organic material ; The detritivores. The nekton community : Invertebrate nekton elements ; Vertebrate nekton elements. Glaciomarine relicts ; Impermanent habitats ; The periphyton ; The neuston ; The psammon ; External metabolites and cyclomorphosis

Ecosystems, energy, and production : The community concept and ecosystems : A few historic aspects ; Diversity ; Community succession ; Food chains and ecospecies ; Biogeochemical aspects of ecosystems ; Energy flow in ecosystems ; Community metabolism. Trophic-dynamic ecology : The problem of efficiency. Primary production : Primary producers (autotrophs) ; Biomass ; Assimilation numbers ; Efficiency of primary production. Organotrophy ; Secondary production : Estimating secondary production of individual species ; Estimating secondary production at the trophic level ; Biomass and efficiency of secondary producers

Lake origins : Glacial lakes : Background of glaciology ; Lakes associated with existing glaciers ; Lakes formed near glaciers ; Lakes formed where glaciers existed. Tectonic lakes : Graben, fault-trough, or rift lakes ; Uplift lakes, the result of epeirogeny ; Earthquake lakes. Landslide lakes ; Lakes formed by volcanic phenomena : Geography of volcanic lakes ; Crater lakes ; Lakes in lava depressions ; Coulee lakes. Solution lakes : Lakes in carbonate substrata ; Lakes in salt-collapse basins. Piping: false karst lakes ; Lakes of aeolian origin ; Fluviatile (river) lakes : Pounding by deltas ; Flood plain lakes ; Evorsion (pothole) lakes. Shoreline lakes ; Lake basins impounded or excavated by organisms ; Lakes formed by extraterrestrial objects and those of puzzling origin ; Additional oriented lakes ; Important relict lakes

Shapes and sizes of lakes : The bathymetric map and its data : Surface dimensions ; Subsurface dimensions. Uses of morphometric data ; The morphoedaphic index ; The shape of lakes at Zo ; Lake “size”

Streams—the lotic ecosystem : Geography, geology, and physics of streams : Stream order ; Types of flow ; Transportation of materials ; The longitudinal profile ; The patterns of channels ; The river’s mouth and the estuary. The river continuum ; Adaptations to the lotic environment : Behavioral adaptations ; Morphologic adaptations. Organic drift ; Functional classification of lotic animals (trophic roles) : Carnivores ; Large grazers and detritivores ; Collectors. Processing of detritus : Coarse particulate organic matter ; Dissolved organic matter ; Fine particulate organic matter ; Autotrophic organisms and predators ; Stream metabolism and efficiency indices

Light and the aquatic ecosystem : Solar constant and nature of light ; Energy in light ; Light at the earth’s surface ; Light at the lake surface ; Light below the water surface ; Vertical visibility, the Secchi disc, and the euphotic zone : Effect of ice and snow cover. Opaque layers and the horizontal transmission of light ; Color ; Absorption of light by plant and bacterial pigments ; Light penetration and aquatic plant zonation ; Light and aquatic animals

Density, layering, and lake classification : Temperature stratification, lake regions, and water density ; Factors modifying density of water and temperature gradients : Temperature ; Pressure ; Solutes (salinity) ; Suspended particles. Stability of stratification ; Annual circulation patterns and lake classification : Amixis ; Holomixis ; Meromixis. Unusual temperature profiles : Dichothermy ; Mesothermy ; Poikilothermy ; The thermal bar

Heat energy and water movements : Heat versus temperature ; Mean temperature and heat content ; Heat distribution: work of the wind ; Heat budgets : Calculations of various budgets ; Regional heat budgets ; Analytic energy budgets. Langmuir circulation ; Austausch coefficients : Coefficient of eddy viscosity ; Coefficient of eddy conductivity. Currents during stagnation ; Seiches : The external seiche ; Energy for the seiche ; Internal or temperature seiches (internal waves). Surface waves ; Coriolis effects

Oxygen and other dissolved gases : Atmospheric sources of gases ; Henry’s law and gas solubility : Effect of altitude ; Effect of temperature ; Effect of salinity ; Relative saturation. Other sources of gas ; Oxygen: introduction and methodology ; Sources of oxygen : Atmosphere and solubility ; Oxygen from photosynthesis. Loss of oxygen ; Vertical distribution of oxygen and lake typology ; Primary production measured by the oxygen method : The light-dark bottle technique ; Diel oxygen changes in natural waters ; Profiles of production rates ; An integrated curve of production ; Conversion of oxygen data to carbon ; Conversion of oxygen data to calories. An index of productivity : Apparent oxygen deficits ; The real oxygen deficit ; The hypolimnetic areal deficit and its rate ; Factors vitiating the index. The isotopes of oxygen

Carbon dioxide, alkalinity, and pH—the CO2 system : Atmospheric stores and solubility of gaseous CO2 ; Sources of CO2 in inland waters ; Isotopes of carbon found in CO2 : Carbon 13 ; Carbon 14. The fate of CO2 in water : The two dissociations of carbonic acid. The forms of CO2 in water and total CO2 ; Buffer systems ; Alkalinity : Factors contributing to alkalinity ; Diel changes in alkalinity. pH and the hydrogen ion : Definitions ; Sources of hydrogen ions ; Limnologic effects of strong acidity ; pH and photosynthesis. Methods of analyzing for free CO2 : Titration ; Calculation. CO2, pH, and primary production : Assay by the radiocarbon method ; Estimate of primary production by pH changes. Hypolimnetic CO2 increase as an index of productivity ; Carbon as a factor limiting primary productivity and its role in eutrophication

The major ions in inland waters : Sources of ions ; Total dissolved solids and specific conductance ; Expression of chemical results ; Salinity versus chlorinity ; Carbonate : Compounds of carbonate ; Biota of alkaline carbonate waters. Sulfate : Some forms of sulfur ; Sources of sulfate ; Sulfate lakes ; Sulfur cycles and productivity ; Hydrogen sulfide ; Sulfur bacteria. Chloride : Sources of chloride. Calcium : Sources of calcium ; Solubility of calcium compounds ; Marl lakes ; Biota of calcium waters. Magnesium : Sources and types of magnesium compounds ; The concept of hardness. Sodium : Sources and types of sodium compounds ; Types of sodium lakes and the cyanobacteria. Potassium : Sources and types of potassium compounds. Water chemistry and desert limnology : Biota of saline waters

Redox, metals, nutrients, and organic substances : Oxidation and reduction: redox potential ; Iron : Chelating agents ; The iron cycle in lakes. Manganese ; Phosphorus : Sources and nature of phosphorus ; Analysis of phosphorus ; Phosphorus in lakes ; Eutrophication and phosphorus ; Nutrient loading. Nitrogen : Nitrogen fixation ; Assimilation ; Ammonification ; Nitrification ; Denitrification ; Nitrogen and eutrophication. Silica ; Inorganic micronutrients ; Dissolved organic substances : Humic substances ; Vitamins

Use and misuse of inland waters—an epilogue : Artificial habitats—lotic and lentic ; Pollution of all kinds ; Exotic fauna and faunal destruction ; Corrective measures and hope